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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2022 with funding from 
Princeton Theological Seminary Library 


_ https://archive.org/details/peoplesofasia00buxt 





The History of Civilization 
Edited by C. K. Ocpen, M.A. 


The Peoples of Asia 


The History of Civilization 


In the Section of this Series devoted to Pre-History and ANTIQUITY are 
included the following volumes :— 


I. Introduction and Pre-History 


*SOCIAL ORGANIZATION . : i A 2 é . W. HH. Re Rivers 
Tur EARTH BEFORE HISTORY : : Se eberier 
PREHISTORIC MAN : - : : : : - J. de Morgan 
LancuaGE: A LINGUISTIC INTRODUCTION TO HIsTORY . J. Vendryes 
A GEOGRAPHICAL INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY : . - L. Febvre 
RAcE AND HISTORY ; A ; é : A : . E. Pittard 
FrRoM TRIBE TO EMPIRE : ; - : : ; ‘ A. Moret 

*WoMAN’S PLACE IN SIMPLE SOCIETIES . : f : . J. L. Myres 

*CYCLES IN HISTORY  . : : . ‘ . b . J. L. Myres 

*THe DIFFUSION OF CULTURE < i A , . G. Elliot Smith 

*THE MIGRATION OF SYMBOLS $ : A ‘ . D. A. Mackenzie 

*THE DAWN OF EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION 5 ; A V. G. Childe 

II. The Early Empires 
THE NILE AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION 4 : 5 : A. Moret 

*COLOUR SYMBOLISM OF ANCIENT EGYPT ‘ é . D. A. Mackenzie 
MESOPOTAMIA : : . : ° 5 L. Delaporte 
Tue ZEGEAN CIVILIZATION . 4 A - 5 “ G. Glotz 


A special group of volumes is devoted to :— 


Historical Ethnology 


*TuE ETHNOLOGY OF INDIA . A : ; 3 . T. C. Hodson 


*THE PEOPLES OF ASIA : : < : . L. H. Dudley Buxton 
*THE THRESHOLD OF THE PACIFIC i ; : GC. Bee box 


* An asterisk indicates that the volume does not form part of the French collection 
‘‘T’Evolution de l’Humanité.” 


———_—— 


A full list of the Series will be found at the end of this volume, 





PLATE I 





CHINESE MOSLEM 
(Original home probably Samarqand) 


[ front. 






& 5s 
LG 
7A 


CU + 


/ By 


L. H. DUDLEY ‘BUXTON, M.A, F.S.A. 


Lecturer in Physical Anthropology, University of Oxford 
Author of ‘The Eastern Road” 





NEW YORK 
ALFRED A. KNOPF 


1925 





. 
: 








Printed in Great Britain at 


The Mayflower Press, Piymouth, William Brendon &s 







PREFACE 


E who attempts to collect the information which is avatl- 

able on the races of Asia is confronted almost more 
than in any other study by the many languages in which his 
authorities have written. The vast mass of Chinese literature 
which bears on the ethnology of Eastern Asia must perforce 
remain unewplored by the ordinary anthropologist, and though 
Western scholars have made a beginning of translating wt into 
more familiar tongues it will probably remain for Chinese scholars 
of the future,versed in“ barbarian” as wellas their native learning 
to unlock the closed book. A beginning has already been made 
by the collaboration of Chinese and foreigners in the very inter- 
esting ethnological publications of the Chinese Geological Survey. 
Most of their publications, as well as many Japanese publica- 
tions, are written both in the native tongue and in some European 
language, and are therefore addressed to a wide public, while 
the practice of quoting tribal and place-names both in character 
and in transliteration avoids the confusion which may easily 
occur where only transliterations, often on different systems, 
are given. . 

Even in Western languages, however, the literature on the 
subject is vast and ever increasing. I have tried in the biblio- 
graphy to indicate those books which I have found of the greatest 
service to me in my own work, and the student by referring to 
them will be enabled to trace at least a large part of the specialized 
literature on various parts of Asia. Considerable prominence 
has been given to easily-accessible books and publications, the 
advanced student will know his own way about the big libraries ; 
and from my own experience I believe that there is no more 
annoying experience for the more elementary student than to 
find that the library he frequents does not possess the work 


Ni 


vi PREFACE 


which he is told is the most useful one on the subject he is studying, 
or if it does possess it, when the book arrives, it turns out to be 
written in a language which is imperfectly understood. In 
many cases, therefore, I have referred to a summary in English, 
French or German, as well as the original article. The summary 
will give the elementary student all he requires, the advanced 
student can then go on to the full work in a less-known language. 

It is difficult for me to eapress adequately my debt to very 
many scholars both here and abroad. My friend and chief, 
Professor Arthur Thomson, Dr. Lee’s Professor of Human 
Anatomy in the University of Oxford, has never ceased to offer 
every assistance in his power to further my work, and to his 
advice and kindly criticism, never grudged on the busiest of 
busy mornings, I owe more than I can ever acknowledge. Mr. 
Henry Balfour, F.RS., Keeper of the Pitt Rivers Museum, 
has continuously and generously helped me in many matters 
with his extensive knowledge and wide experience, and this 
volume owes much to him. Professor Myres first introduced 
me to Asia and, more important still, to field work ; he has not 
failed to see that I did not neglect the introduction which he had 
given. To Dr. Marett I owe an especial debt in regard to the 
technique of anthropological writing. Abroad my especial 
thanks are due to Dr. Black, of the Rockefeller Institute in 
Peking, and to the Director of that Institute for admitting me 
as a temporary member of their staff and giving me the use of 
their laboratories. Professor Adachi allowed me to examine at 
leisure, under his guidance, the magnificent collections of the 
Imperial University at Kyoto, and Dr. Nieuwenhuis escorted 
me in person and by deputy through Java. The opportunity 
to undertake this extensive travel was given me by the generous 
Fellowship endowed by M. Kahn. I feel that thanks are also 
due to a series of Chinese and Mongol scholars in Peking, some 
of whose photographs have been utilized in this volume for 
demonstrating on their own persons and on those of their friends 
—dwellers in the remoter parts of Asia—some of the different 
racial types of that vast continent. 


PREFACE vil 


I feel sure that these scholars would consider that one whose 
beard is not yet grey is guilty of filial impiety in attempting to 
discuss so vast a subject. No one is more conscious than I am 
that this is but a vindematio prima of the harvest-fields of Asia. 
I have writien in the hope that even such a scanty gleaning may 
help to attract others better equipped to reap the treasures which 
are to be found in abundance. In so short a space it is impossible 
to do more than indicate the general trend of the published work 
on the subject, and to incorporate here and there the little bits 
of actual original work which I have been able to do in one or 
two places. 

My father, Dr. Dudley Buxton, and Mr. G. R. Carline have 
been kind enough to read through the typescript, and I owe very 
much to their careful and thorough revision. Mr. Charles 
Henderson, I.C.S., read through the chapter on India in type- 
script and proof, and Mr. Ernest Thomas, the chapter on the 
Near East. My pupil, Mr. Fraser of Queen’s College, rendered 
invaluable help with the index. Mr. Chesterman, Assistant in 
the Department of Human Anatomy, Oxford, has prepared the 
prints for publication from my own negatives. 

To all these gentlemen and to many others who have assisted 
me at various times, I owe a deep debt of gratitude. 


Pele DBs 
Oxford, June, 1925. 





CHAPTER 


CONTENTS 


PREFACE 


INTRODUCTION 

THe Racrs or ASIA 

THE ORIGIN OF THE ASIATIC RACES 
WESTERN ASIA . 

INDIA 

CHINA 

Tur Frincinc LANDS or CHINA 
Arctic ASIA 

JAPAN 

SoutTH-EASTERN ASIA AND INDONESIA 


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 


BIBLIOGRAPHY . ;. 
InpEXx oF TRIBAL NAMES 


GENERAL INDEX 





LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATE 
I. CHInEsrE MosLtemM , . : : . Frontispiece 
II. A MoneGot. : : : ‘ 4 . Facing page 58 
III. Cypriot PrEasant : F ; : é ey, Cote! 
IV. Tamiz Woman . : : . : ‘ ae oO 
V. A VEDDA . : : 3 ; ; : ay, aN ae e! 
VI. A Kwams TIBETAN . : ‘ ‘ : a ee yp: 
VII. A Mancuu ; , ‘ : ; : 188 


VIII. A Prasant WomMAN FROM SOUTH JAPAN pl tr alll: 


xi 





NOTE 


TueE references have been serially arranged by chapters. 
The first figure refers to the chapter, the second figure to 
the serial number of the reference within the chapter, and 
the third figure is to page of the work quoted, if it has been 
found necessary to add this. Where the work quoted 
deals entirely with the subject quoted I have not usually 
added the page. II. 12, 24 means page 24 of the twelfth 
reference in Chapter II; reference to the bibliography at 
the end of the volume will show that this is A. C. Haddon : 
The Wanderings of Peoples. 


xiii 





THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


CHAPTER I 
INTRODUCTION 


NE of the greatest difficulties which the student of 
anthropology has to face is the selection of criteria 
which he is to adopt in order to distinguish the various 
peoples he is describing. Many such criteria have been 
suggested in the past and have been variously accepted. 
Most books therefore which deal with any country, other 
than a restricted area, are apt to be very confusing because 
the same basis of classification has not been adhered to 
throughout. In some cases the authors, although consistent, 
have used criteria which have not won general acceptance, 
and therefore their works have proved less useful because 
it has been hardly possible to compare them with other 
investigations in the same field. 

The divisions of mankind, which have become traditional, 
are based either on physique or culture. Herodotus is one 
of the earliest ethnologists to suggest the former. He says 
that it was possible on a certain battlefield to distinguish 
between the crania of the Egyptians and the Persians because 
the former were less easily broken. This statement, which 
has been widely accepted even in modern textbooks, is 
unfortunately not correct. Aristotle also would apparently 
accept a physical criterion when he says that the Greeks differ 
(fvoet) from the barbarians. He seems however to mean a 
psychological rather than an anatomical difference, as he is 
not concerned with what he would no doubt have con- 
sidered a branch of medicine. 

Language as a test of race was also widely accepted. by 
the Greeks, and even as early as Homer the Carians are 
classified as speaking a “ barbarian’ tongue. This form of 

B 1 


2 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


classification has been very widely accepted by ethnologists, 
owing, no doubt, to the rapid advances made at the beginning 
of the last century by the comparative philologists, and we 
still speak in the same breath of Semitic and Mongoloid 
races when in the latter case we mean a physical type and 
in the former people speaking kindred languages. Nationality 
has also formed a frequent test for race, although this criterion 
has been less widely accepted than the linguistic test. In 
this volume the basis of classification will be physique, and 
as far as possible all linguistic and national terms will be 
avoided. It is not possible at present however to adopt 
a terminology which entirely eliminates such words except 
by coining an entirely new set of names, a procedure which 
is only likely to lead to confusion. We can hardly avoid 
words like “ Turk” or ‘‘ Arab,” although these two words 
have rather a linguistic and a cultural than a physical con- 
notation. 

The history of the classification of mankind is not without 
great significance at the present juncture, describing as it 
does the reason for the modern acceptance of certain terms 
as well as explaining their exact significance which other- 
wise is often apt to be confusing. 

The work of Herodotus and Aristotle has already been 
mentioned. It was not till the beginning of the seventeenth 
century that Western Europe seriously began to reconsider 
the problems of ethnology which had been bequeathed to 
her by the ancient world. In the meantime much material 
for comparison had been accumulating owing to the voyages 
of the Elizabethan mariners, many of whom brought back 
succinct accounts of new types of ‘ barbarians ” which had 
been unknown to the ancient world. 

It is unnecessary to consider in detail the many classifica- 
tions of mankind which have been suggested since the 
Renaissance. The reader will find them fully described in 
Keane’s Ethnology (I. 1). Some of the more important may 
however be mentioned in so far as they relate to Asia. 
Bernier who died in 1688 suggests that there are four main 
divisions of mankind: Europeans, who are white, Africans, 
who are black, Asiatics, who are yellow, and Lapps. 
Linneus (I. 2), writing nearly a century later (he died 
in 1783), still adopts the three same main groups but 


INTRODUCTION 3 


includes hair and eye colour, so that the Asiatics are classed 
as yellow with brown eyes and black hair. He also includes 
the Americans as a fourth class, but removes the Lapps 
from their solitary eminence. 

It is to Blumenbach (I. 8) however that we really 
owe the foundations of modern anthropology and some of 
his terms have survived until to-day. His contributions to 
racial study are summarized by Duckworth (I. 4, 4) as 
follows. He first employed the term ‘‘ anthropology ” in 
descriptive morphological studies. He recognized the fact 
that no sharp lines demarcate the several varieties of man- 
kind, and realized that the transition from type to type is 
imperceptible. Further, he clearly enunciated a classificatory 
scheme of the varieties of mankind, admittedly arbitrary 
but with the object of facilitating study, the classification 
being based on the characters of the skin, hair and skull. 
Finally, he recognized the influence of external causes in 
producing and perpetuating variation in animals, including 
man; he also recognized the origin of varieties through 
degeneration and very nearly anticipated Darwin. 

His terms have survived until to-day; he called the White 
races ‘‘ Caucasic,’”’ because in trying to obtain a non-terri- 
torial name he was struck by some fine Georgian skulls 
among some skulls he happened to be examining and so 
called the race “* Caucasic ” after them. His term for African 
Ethiopic has not survived, but Mongolic (or the variety 
Mongolian) is still in use. Modern anthropology has not 
accepted his separate classification for Malay. 

An immense amount of work was done in the next eighty 
years, but this need not be discussed here; it is of great 
interest however to note Huxley’s classification, published 
in the Journal of the Ethnological Society in 1870 (I. 5). Here 
we find that further exploration has borne fruit in a more 
elaborate classification, although the main lines are not 
different. Asiatic peoples are included in all Huxley’s 


1 As Keane somewhat inaccurately states Blumenbach’s position the 
following note, which I owe to my colleague, Miss Blackwood, is of interest. 
In his first edition (De generis humani varietate nativa 1775, p. 99) he follows 
Linnzus and divides mankind into four varieties. In the second edition, 
1781, he alters the four to five, adding the group Malay ‘ after I had more 
accurately investigated the different nations of Eastern Asia.” This later 
division he elaborates in the third edition in 1795. 


4 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


groups. Under the Negroes he includes the Negritos, but 
unlike modern observers he groups together under that 
name the Andamanese, the Papuans and the Tasmanians. 
His second classification, the Australoid, is also of interest for 
our purpose; these include the Australian aborigines, the 
hill tribes of the Deccan (Dravidians) and the Egyptians. 
His Mongoloid group comprises the Mongols, from Lappland 
to Siam, the Malays, the Indonesians and Polynesians, and 
the Eskimo and American Indians. His group of fair Whites 
do not enter into the present consideration, but under the 
dark Whites or Melanocroid he includes the inhabitants of 
Syria, Arabia, Persia, and ‘‘ Hindostan.” 

The writers of the next thirty years put forward various 
classifications most of which differed from Huxley in minor 
points. It is important to note that in some cases different 
criteria were used. Colour and hair form had on the whole 
been the criteria adopted by the older writers, some of the 
more modern have preferred to rely on hair alone. Topinard 
(I. 6) introduced the combination of colour and the nasal 
index and classed the Yellow races of Asia as ‘“ Yellow 
Mesorrhine.” His classification has been generally followed. 

Sergi’s work (I. 7) is of importance because he suggested 
an entirely original form of classification, that of head form. 
He considered that the brachycephalic element which has 
penetrated into Europe was essentially Asiatic in origin as 
opposed to the Eurafrican longheads. His classification is 
therefore in many ways a greater challenge to students of 
Africa than to those of Asia. Dependence on skull form is 
however a new method. It has not received wide acceptance 
owing to the difficulties which are encountered in under- 
standing the various subgroups suggested by him. 

The classification indicated by Duckworth in his Morphology 
and Anthropology (I. 4, ch. xvi.) is one of the most important 
of modern attempts. It depends on criteria which, although 
they have been much used by anthropologists for many 
years, have not, so far as Iam aware, been employed to any 
great extent for general classifications. He has introduced 
a method which is not dissimilar in principle to that used 
by many morphologists for classifying other animals, and 
his results, although they naturally agree in many cases with 
the work of previous observers, have certain differences, 


INTRODUCTION 5 


which if proved to be true will profoundly alter many of our 
views on the population of Asia. 

He takes three main criteria and divides mankind on the 
basis provided by these criteria. They are: cranial capacity, 
cephalic index, and the projection of the face. Thus his 
Group I includes men of small cranial capacity, dolicho- 
cephalic heads and prognathous faces, the type being called 
the Australian. Group II have similar characters but differ 
in other morphological details, the type being the African 
Negro. Of the Asiatic peoples he has made a classification 
as follows: the first, Group IV which he describes as 
Eurasiatic, all have a large cranial capacity and are orthog- 
nathous. They are divided into a dolichocephalic and a 
brachycephalic subgroup; this type includes the inhabitants 
of Europe, part of North Africa, all of Asia, with small 
exceptions, and most of the continent of America. In the 
other Asiatic group are the Andamanese, who have small 
capacity, are brachycephalic and orthognathous. The con- 
trast in size and importance between the two groups is very 
striking and brings out clearly the distinguishing point 
between Duckworth’s classification and that of previous 
authors. He appears to hold the view that the greater part 
of mankind belongs to the same group, but that a few varieties 
have specialized either in response to environmental or other 
conditions. These varieties include the peoples who are most 
generally conceded to be backward races, and include not 
only those very clearly specialized peoples, the Andamanese 
and the Eskimo, but also the Negro, the Bushman, the 
Australian aborigines and the Polynesians. 

Most classifications have considered that the differences 
between the Yellow races and the White are sufficient to 
justify their being included in the two great varieties of 
mankind ; Duckworth, however, insisting on their resem- 
blances rather than on their differences, refuses to separate 
them by as wide a gap as that which divides them both 
from, say, the Negro. His subdivision is also of fundamental 
importance as it links up the brachycephals of Europe with 
the Yellow peoples of Asia more closely than with their long- 
headed European neighbours, in much the same way that 
some authors, notably the Italian School of Anthropologists, 
are inclined to link up the Mediterranean race with the Negro. 


6 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


An examination of the crania of, say, Chinese and of the 
round heads of Western Asia must reveal the similarity of 
cranial form; indeed, it is often difficult if not impossible on 
an examination of the calvaria alone to distinguish between 
the two. The difference in the bony framework of the face 
and of the rest of the skeleton however suggests that there 
is considerable difference between the two. Duckworth’s 
criteria however are based in two cases on the calvarial form, 
and therefore tend to mask the differences. The exact 
degree of relationship between the different groups of man- 
kind is still so uncertain that this particular classification 
deserves greater recognition than it has received by most 
writers on the classification of mankind, many of whom 
have been content to follow the more traditional and at 
first sight clearer classifications. 

Ripley (I. 8) who, unlike most of the authors we have been 
considering, did not discuss the population of the whole 
world, but limited himself to one continent, Europe, adopted 
three criteria, the cephalic index, that is the percentage ratio 
of the head breadth to the head length, stature, and colour. 
On this basis the inhabitants of Europe instead of forming 
six races, as they do according to the criteria adopted by 
Deniker (I. 9), are divided into three. In the north there is 
a fair, tall long-headed race called the Nordic, on the central 
massif is found a round-headed race of medium colouring 
and stature, “‘ Alpine,” and on the shores of the Mediterranean 
a short, long-headed brunet race, which coincides with Sergi’s 
Mediterranean race. Although there are certain objections 
to Ripley’s theories, especially his views on the Negroes and 
his treatment of the round-headed races of Central Europe, 
his views may be said to dominate the field of anthropology 
at the present time, even where they are not accepted in full, 
and any student of the ethnology of Europe or Asia must 
delve deeply into the material collected in his brilliant and 
exhaustive monograph. 

The majority of the workers who have been quoted above 
were by training and interests anatomists. Following the 
lead of Quetelet (I. 20) and Retzius (I. 21) they had been 
in the habit of taking certain measurements, but being for 
the most part not interested in the mathematical aspects 
of the problem they failed to make the full use of their 


INTRODUCTION vi 


figures or to follow the path indicated by Quetelet. To 
Professor Pearson (I. 10) is due the introduction of the 
scientific study of numerical data into anthropology. He 
saw that there were ready to hand a series of methods, many 
of which were in general use by statisticians and astronomers, 
which could be applied with every hope of success to bio- 
logical problems. Of the original workers in this field, of 
whom the most distinguished were Galton and Weldon, 
Pearson is the only survivor, and he has gathered round him 
a school of ‘‘ Biometricians,” many of whom have devoted 
considerable attention to anthropology. Although the 
members of this school published their earliest papers nearly 
thirty years ago, their views have not met with universal 
acceptance, partly perhaps owing to the fact that many 
anthropologists are unacquainted with the comparatively 
obscure method of writing which has characterized some 
of their publications and partly also because many of the 
Biometricians, owing, no doubt, to an early specialization in 
the principles of applied mathematics, sometimes showed a 
lack of anatomical training. In considering the work of this 
school it must always be remembered that the mathematical 
treatment of data is merely mechanical and that nothing 
can emerge from the machine which was not originally put 
into it. It is however possible to grade by mathematical 
methods great quantities of data which might otherwise be 
very unwieldy if not impossible to handle. 

The older anthropologists had been content to take 
measurements and to work out “averages”? by rule-of- 
thumb methods without considering at all accurately how 
far these averages could really be taken as typical measure- 
ments of the group from which the original measurements were 
obtained. To the Biometric School we owe the introduction 
into anthropology of certain concepts of great practical 
value. These may be conveniently grouped under three 
headings: measures of dispersion, probable errors, and the 
theory of contingency and correlation. It must not be 
supposed that these ideas originated with or were even 
introduced into anthropology by this school, their use in 
anthropological work had previously been suggested with a 


1 A special periodical, Biometrika, is published devoted to biometric 
research, 


8 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


slightly different terminology by Quetelet. The Biometric 
School, however, popularized them and extended their scope 
far beyond what had been done by any previous workers, 
and the debt which anthropology owes to Pearson, both for 
developing old methods and for devising new ones, is even 
now hardly sufficiently recognized. 

It had been recognized by all writers from Herodotus 
onwards that certain races were more mixed than others, in 
other words that the component stocks from which certain 
tribes had originated presented similar features, While in the 
case of other tribes their origin had to be sought in less 
closely related stocks which had mixed together and pro- 
duced a hybrid people. By the use of the standard deviation 
and the coefficient of variation Pearson has shown that it 
is possible to measure the comparative pureness of various 
peoples. 


The standard deviation is found by taking the square root of the 
mean square deviation from the mean. It should be noted that 
““mean”’ is the technical term for what is called, in popular 
language, the “‘ average.” It would, of course, be possible to take 
the mean of a series of measurements and then to take the average 
deviation of the measurements from that mean. It has been 
found in practice, however, that greater accuracy is obtained by 
taking not the actual deviation but the square of those deviations, 
and then taking the average of those squares and finally the 
Square root of this average. The figure thus obtained is called a 
measure of dispersion, because it shows how far the various in- 
dividuals of the series which is being examined are “ dispersed ” 
or scattered in relation to the central point or average. If the 
standard deviation is small, that is, if the dispersion is not great, 
the mean will be typical of the group, but if it is widely scattered 
then obviously but few individuals in one group will have measure- 
ments which approximate to the mean. In other words, our mean 
will be a less reliable indication of the racial type. The matter 
may be understood more simply if we compare anthropological 
measurements with cricket scores. If one batsman makes in 
three innings 0, 15, and 30, and another 13, 15, and 17, we should 
say that, though both have the same average, one was a more 
steady player than the other, although, of course, we should want 
his score for more than three innings before we could pass a definite 
judgment, a point which we shall return to later. The steadier 
player we may suppose was always good to make about 15 runs, or, 


INTRODUCTION 9 


in other words, his average closely approximated to the score we 
might expect him to make. With so few figures this can be seen 
at a glance. If both had played fifty innings it would be less 
easy. Let us therefore work out their standard deviations. The 
mean in both cases is 15, the first player’s first innings deviates 
from the mean by 15, the square of which is 225, his second innings 
is equal to the mean and the third innings has the same deviation 
as the first. The total square deviation is therefore 450. To get 
the mean or average of this we must divide by the total number 
of innings, three. The mean square deviation is therefore 150, 
ie. *3°. The square root is just over 12, which represents the 
standard deviation of his score. Using the same method the mean 
square deviation of the second player’s score is §, i.e. 1:67, the 
square root of which is under 1:3. This example will serve to 
show in an exaggerated form how the standard deviation may be 
used, but we can hardly apply the theory of mixed races to a 
single player’s scores. 

It will be clear that if we mix two series, say one in which the 
heads are short and another in which the heads are long, the average 
measurement will represent not a typical member of the series, 
but a compromise between the two. The standard deviation will 
be great, because the short-headed series will extend on one side 
and the long-headed on the other. In some eases, no doubt, this 
would be revealed by a graph, but there are many cases when the 
use of a measure of dispersion is more convenient and for compara- 
tive purposes it is infinitely less unwieldy. It will happen some- 
times that we may wish to compare measurements whose means 
differ very much. We might wish to know whether a certain race 
had a more variable head length or stature. In order to do this we 
must have some common factor. This is to be found by the 
“* coefficient of variation,’’ which is obtained by multiplying the 
standard deviation by a hundred and dividing the product by the 
mean. To return to our cricket analogy, on examining A’s scores 
at the end of the season a member of the club decides that he is a 
more reliable bat than bowler, another member takes an opposite 
view. If the club possessed a biometrician he might suggest that 
by comparing the coefficients of variation of A’s batting and bowl- 
ing averages the matter could easily be settled. All that has to be 
done is to work out his batting average, say 15, with its standard 
deviation, say 9, the coefficient of variation will be 4°”, i.e. 60, and 
to do the same for his bowling average, and we can compare the 
two figures and decide which member of the club was right. 

The great value of such methods will be seen where we have 
reason to suspect that a race is the result of the mixture of two 


10 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


races which present some features in common, but which differ 
in other respects. We should expect the hybrid to show little 
variation in those characters in which the two alleged original 
stocks are alike, and to have a wide measure of dispersion where 
they differed. This suggestion could be measured by comparing 
the coefficients of variation. 

While it is possible by using familiar analogies to illustrate the 
meaning of the standard deviation, it is less easy to explain that 
of probable errors. It will be clear that if I take a series of measure- 
ments on a savage tribe and at a subsequent date take another 
series, I shall not by the law of chance which, as Laplace says, is 
common sense reduced to calculation, get exactly similar results 
on both occasions. It will also appear that the larger the number 
of individuals in my series the more likely the two are to agree. 
Now, although it would be better to work out my averages from 
as large a series as possible, it is convenient to know how far my 
average does really represent the population under review. This 
will depend on two things, first, how variable the population is and, 
secondly, the number of individuals measured. The more I measure 
and the lower my standard deviation the more likely is my series 
to approximate to the true mean of the population. The value 
of the probable error is estimated from these two factors, it 
therefore supplies a method of showing in a convenient way the 
reliability of the data. If the probable error is great the mean 
value calculated must be accepted with caution, if small, then the 
calculated value probably approximates to the true mean value. 
The probable error can be calculated for mean standard devia- 
tions, coefficients of variation of correlation and so on. The name 
is perhaps unfortunate, as it does not signify the error that is 
likely to have occurred in the calculation owing to personal 
equation or any other cause. 

The theories of contingency and correlation are different aspects 
of the same problem, the former deals with characters which cannot 
and the latter with those that can be measured. It is of the 
greatest importance in anthropology. A coefficient has been con- 
structed, the actual methods of calculation of which need not con- 
cern us here. If two variables vary exactly in relation to one 
another, such as mass and weight, they are exactly correlated and 
the coefficient if calculated would be one. If there is no relation- 
ship between the variables the coefficient is in the neighbourhood 
of zero. In anthropological work we seldom or never get either 
unity or zero, owing to many accidental features, but the varying 
size of the coefficients serve to show that two features are closely 
connected, either as cause and effect or else both as effects of the 


INTRODUCTION 11 


same cause, It is unnecessary to give examples here, as there will 
be numerous occasions when various coefficients will be quoted 
in the sequel. 

I have considered at some length these aspects, perhaps the 
simplest but, at the same time, not the least important of Pearson’s 
work, because a proper understanding of them is necessary if we 
are to make use of much of the data on the peoples of Asia which 
have been collected by workers in the field. 


Biometricians have been for the most part interested in 
method. They have seldom therefore, with one or two ex- 
ceptions, applied themselves to wide ethnological problems. 
Recently however an attempt based on the study of certain 
Asiatic peoples has been made to supersede the older methods 
of analysis by the construction of a provisional ‘ Coefficient 
of Racial Likeness” (I.14). This coefficient attempts to give 
a numerical value to the combined characters of a race. 

It has been felt by many anthropologists that reliance on 
a single character or index or even on two or three arbitrarily 
selected criteria, as for instance stature, the cephalic index 
and so on, is not a sufficient method of gauging racial dif- 
ferences. In some eases also it is found that the apparent 
evidence is very contradictory, Groups A and B, let us say, 
differing from one another but little in two criteria selected 
and much in two others, the reverse being the case between 
AandC. It is not then an easy task to decide on the relation- 
ship between B and C who may differ in a different way 
from one another. 


The suggested coefficient gets over this difficulty by combining 
all the characters and indices together and reducing them to a 
single index figure. It is well known that the significant difference 
between the mean values of the same character in two different 
races can be estimated by dividing this difference by its probable 
error. When the quotient of this division is more than three the 
difference is said to be significant.2, The probable error of any 
mean depends on two things, the standard deviation and the num- 
ber of cases used to obtain the mean, and the constant :6745. The 
coefficient of racial likeness is found by dividing the difference be- 

1 The biometric aspect of anthropology has a bibliography of its own. The 
student may most profitably study the papers quoted in later chapters. For 
general works see I. 10, 11, 12. A very clear statement of method will be found 


in I. 14. 
2 For a further discussion of this point see my paper on Cyprus (I. 13, 194). 


12 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


tween the means of the two people under discussion divided by the 
sum of the two standard deviations divided each by the number of 
cases on which the constants were based. For greater accuracy in 
the same way that we take not the mean deviation from the mean, 
but the mean square deviation, the figures are squared before we 
divide. The figure so obtained must, of course, be divided by the 
number of characters we have selected. We get then what practi- 
ally amounts to a mean significant difference, or rather the value 
of the mean significant difference divided by -6745. 

Symbolically the significant difference is found where, say, M, 
is the mean cephalic index of the first race and M, the mean 
cephalic index of the second by the following : 


M,—M, M,—M, 
he pps S HVC (Se 67450,\?__ (Soe) (ieee crises) 
V/ ny V5 


whereas the coefficient of racial likeness is found by the following 





formula (M 
i pisos Hh, 1 where k is the number of characters 
: o we considered, ¢ the probable error 
Ny Ns and o the standard deviation. 


It will be seen at once that whereas in dealing with significant 
differences we are at once aware whether the first or the second 
race is bigger in respect to certain characters and possibly smaller 
in respect to others, we are here avoiding the difficulty of plus or 
minus signs by squaring the differences between the means. 
Whether this is a disadvantage or an advantage will be seen when 
the method has been put to a further test. It would seem, how- 
ever, to be an advantage to consider differences apart from their 
signs, and to obtain an average value it would, of course, be 
necessary to have some means of preventing the plus and minus 
differences cancelling out. 

The objection to the assumption of a similar standard deviation 
for different races, an assumption which is discussed by Morant in 
his paper, need not concern us here, as we are dealing with num- 
bers which are at least sufficient to assure us of a standard devia- 
tion with a comparatively low probable error, and much greater 
numbers than have been used in the previous papers where this 
coefficient has been employed. 


The difficulty that some characters may give greater 
weight than others may be suggested, but the method of 
using the standard deviations and expressing the differences 


INTRODUCTION 13 


in these terms overcomes this difficulty from the technical 
point of view. It does not however overcome it from the 
practical. Clearly if we were to take characters which were 
closely correlated we should not be giving a fair weight to 
our measurements. Suppose we had ten characters of which 
three were closely correlated and the other seven were only 
slightly correlated to one another. Under those circum- 
stances it would not be fair to divide by ten to get our mean 
coefficient, and yet as the correlation is not likely to be 
complete it would be wrong to treat the three closely cor- 
related characters as a unit and divide by one. This diffi- 
culty is overcome in practice by choosing characters which 
are known to be correlated in only a slight degree to one 
another, so slight a degree that the correlation can be 
neglected. This difficulty is one which always deserves 
consideration. 

A further objection is that the measurements which we 
select are necessarily of an arbitrary character, and with the 
present state of our knowledge it would seem as if some were 
of greater racial significance than others. By racial I mean 
less affected by environment and more by heredity. The 
selection of characters to form the coefficient must then be 
an arbitrary affair and the value of the result will depend on 
the skill with which the selection is made. Anthropologists 
are at present by no means agreed on what the best char- 
acters are, and in the present state of our knowledge the 
matter must be considered to be purely in the experimental 
stage. } 

A further objection that may be raised is that we are 
reducing definite measurements, whose significance is easily 
understood although they may be differently interpreted, to 
a purely arbitrary figure. If the same measurements were 
selected in all cases this figure would be of great value; when 
the selection is different in each author’s paper, the value of 
the coefficient is thereby much impaired. The amount of 
computation necessary is such that it is unlikely that a 
single author would be able in the limited time at his dis- 
posal to cover more than a comparative restricted field. 

A scientific method must however be judged by its results, 
and it is clear that at present the coefficient is in an ex- 
perimental stage. It has however seemed worth while to 


14 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


consider it here in some detail, because it has been used so 
far in the elucidation of problems which are entirely Asiatic 
and because owing to its comparative obscurity it does no 
seem to be well known to ethnologists. At present the 
method has not shown anything which could not have been 
discovered by less complicated means, except for the associa- 
tion of the peoples of South Indian with the Yellow races, 
a statement which is not likely to meet with general ac- 
ceptance, but this will be considered in a later chapter. It 
is more than possible, however, that biometricians may suc- 
ceed in developing this or a similar method. Such a method 
if it were devised and proved to be satisfactory would be 
one of their greatest contributions to science. 

I have dealt at some length with the work of the Biometric 
School because I shall have numerous occasions to make use 
of their methods in the chapters which follow. They have 
been for the most part ignored by the general textbooks on 
ethnology, such as those of Keane, Deniker, and Ripley, and 
many modern monographs while quoting the standard devia- 
tions and so on of the figures with which they are dealing 
neglect to make an adequate use of the very convenient, if 
sometimes complicated, machinery which has been con- 
structed by the Biometric School. 

So far they have not attempted to publish a general 
classification of mankind, but seem to have been working 
towards a goal which resembles that suggested by Quetelet. 

The most recent classification which has been published 
is that of Haddon (I.19). He has adopted three characters, 
skin, hair, and nose. The scheme, he says, ‘‘ is not a classifi- 
cation as that word is understood by zoological and botanical 
systematists, as it includes geographical considerations. All 
those who have attempted to make a systematic classification 
of mankind have found themselves in difficulties and have 
frequently fallen back on geographical groupings.” 

Haddon has on the whole followed, with considerable 
modifications, the classification suggested by Topinard. He 
differs in some respects from many of the views put forward 
by the Biometric School, notably in the suggestion that wide 
variations may be found not only in mixed races but also 
in undifferentiated pure ones. His criteria do not cause him 
to suggest any divisions which differ widely from those which 


INTRODUCTION 15 


have been generally accepted, although he seems to take a 
somewhat different view of relationships. Indeed, it be- 
comes abundantly clear from a study of the various attempts 
which have been made to classify mankind that, except in 
the case of a few authors who have very unconventional 
views, which do not seem likely to receive wide acceptance, 
there are certain divisions of mankind which appear what- 
ever criteria are used. 

Writers who have approached the problem from very 
different standpoints have on the whole come to opinions 
which, however diverse they may seem at first sight, are 
found on subsequent investigation to agree in fundamentals 
although they may differ widely in detail. The divisions 
are however for the most part artificial, and it will be seen 
in the sequel that a difference of opinion does exist in regard 
to some peoples as to whether they should be placed in the 
White or Yellow group of mankind, even though the authors 
who admit the difficulty are perfectly convinced that the 
White and Yellow groups represent distinguishable divisions 
of mankind. Border-line cases are so frequent that the 
ethnologist has either to admit undifferentiated peoples or 
to suggest racial admixture. The adherents of mathematical 
methods, as I understand them, would make variation the 
supreme test and declare that where there is much variation 
we have evidence of racial admixture. Haddon on the other 
hand seems, as I have said, to believe that a lack of differentia- 
tion can also be the cause of wide variation. Again, some of 
the Biometric School believe that racial mixture can eventu- 
ally proceed to the pitch where the mixture becomes a 
compound and the two or more stocks become so blended 
that the final race shows as much and as little variation as 
ae. pure.” race. 

But not only is the difficulty confined to the main racial 
stocks. The subdivisions of the main groups are almost 
infinite in number, and the subject for endless controversy 
and vast columns of figures and infinite measurements which 
appear often to be but imperfectly understood. There are 
few criteria which are generally accepted and the student 
is left to wander disconsolate in a welter of conflicting 
literature. 


16 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


The fundamental problem seems to concern the question 
of racial fixity. In the days before the acceptance of the 
doctrine of evolution this problem had been seen by anthro- 
pologists such as Blumenbach, who suggested that the solution 
might be seen in degeneration, for the fall of man seems to 
have fired imaginations more strongly than his rise. 

To-day the problem is discussed on a wider footing. In 
general terms the question is limited to the discussion whether 
environment can ever effect mankind in such a way as to 
produce heritable characters. The opinion of most biologists 
appears to be that man like other animals is the carrier of 
germ plasm (I. 37). His mortal body is not capable of trans- 
mitting the effect of stimuli, which it has received, to the 
immortal and precious matter which it holds in trust for 
future generations. The bearers of the torch of life may 
stumble or may scale the mountain heights, they may ex- 
tinguish the torch which they are carrying, but they cannot 
alter the nature of the divine fire. 

There are however certain varieties of the human race 
which, although capable of producing fertile hybrids, appear 
to represent more or less true strains. Some of the differences 
are constant and others are less easily capable of exact 
observation and measurement. The origin of these differences 
has been the subject of considerable discussion ever since the 
acceptance of the doctrine of evolution. Two points of view 
have been expressed. One school, which_on the whole has 
not met with much support, is inclined to put forward the 
multiple origin of man from different apes or ape-like an- 
cestors, a view which is made untenable by the close re- 
semblances of the different groups of mankind. The second 
school suggests that man has become modified owing to the 
effect of environment. Here again there seems to be two 
ways in which this modification may have taken place. The 
varieties of man may be due either to sports or mutants, 
those which have survived being the ones which were most 
suited to the conditions to which they were subjected, or 
to the gradual modification of various organs owing to the 
response to certain environmental stimuli. Haddon suggests 
that it is possible that at one time man was less differen- 
tiated than he is at present and therefore more capable of 
responding to the effects of environment. Keith (I. 40) has 


INTRODUCTION ibe 


suggested that this progressive evolution has not yet ceased 
to operate, and that civilization is having an effect on the 
physical form of certain members of the human race. 

The effect of the mixing of different types, once the types 
have become specialized, has been pointed out as the possible 
origin of certain racial types; such a suggestion does not how- 
ever get over the original difficulty of the specialization of 
type. 

The actual mechanism of the change does not concern us 
here. The evidence does however seem to suggest that 
certain human types are associated with certain environ- 
mental conditions. It would however seem as if there were 
potentialities in the human race and that so long as these 
potentialities were allowed their full play response to en- 
vironment was possible, but that after specialization had 
taken place in a particular direction the line of evolution 
must be forward, not backward ; that is to say, that if for 
some reason or other a particular type had developed a 
broad nose, the stimuli which might make another type 
have a narrow nose would not cause the broad nose which 
had in the course of ages been getting broader to turn back 
and narrow itself again. 

It must also be remembered that although for purposes 
of study we isolate certain features, yet in actual fact man 
is a complex organism whose existence depends not on 
individual functions of various organs but rather on the 
mutual function of a most complicated series of organs. 
In the paragraphs which follow I shall try and show very 
briefly how far it would seem that certain features, some of 
them often considered of racial importance, do seem to re- 
spond to environment. What I have said at the beginning 
of the paragraph must however be always borne in mind. 
The relationship of the whole series of organs to environ- 
ment is really the most important feature. To discuss this 
relationship would however be a study of greater complica- 
tion than can be attempted in this book. Professor Arthur 
Thomson (I. 15) has suggested that environment plays an 
important part in moulding certain features of the human 
frame. Most of his views are based on what may be called 
mechanical considerations. He would see in the stresses to 
which the head, for instance, is subjected the most important 

Cc 


18 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


influences which mould its form. At the same time he has 
not expressed any opinion on the length of time which it 
takes for such mechanical influences to become effective, 
nor exactly how far they may be considered racial or in- 
dividual characters. The importance of this work will be 
seen when we come to estimate in detail those characters 
which have usually been considered to be good criteria of 
race. If these can be proved to be the direct result of the 
influence of environment, whether on the group or on the 
individual, it is clear that though they may serve to distinguish 
a particular tribe, so long as it remains in a particular en- 
vironment, they will not serve to show the actual kinship 
of various peoples who may have certain features in common. 
This matter is of special importance, since it is clear that 
race if it is to have any meaning must follow the connotation 
which is given it by Broca when he says:1 “‘ The varieties of 
mankind have received the name of races, which gives the 
idea of a more or less direct relationship between individuals 
of the same variety, but does not decide either affirmatively 
or negatively the question of the relationship between in- 
dividuals of different varieties.” 

When we are faced with the problem of the effect of envi- 
ronment on the human frame we are in a position to make 
especial use of the theories of correlation and contingency, 
the details of which have been outlined above. They enable 
us to test in a very exact way the extent to which a certain 
character in the human body varies in relation either to 
another character or else to outside influences. They cannot 
always be used, but where possible their employment is of 
the utmost importance. 

The most generally accepted criterion of race in the past 
has been the cephalic index. Thomson (I.15) has shown 
that there are several factors which determine the shape of 
the head. The most important is the size of the brain. 
There can be little doubt that on the whole there is a cor- 
relation between brain size and body size, but at present we 
do not know how far different brain sizes are correlated with 
different races. If we did it might be possible to find in this 
an important indication of racial differences. 


1 Article, ‘‘ Anthropologie,’ in Dict. Encycl. des Sciences Meédic., vol. V, 
quoted by Topinard, Anthropology, English Edition, p. 198. 


INTRODUCTION 19 


Secondly, the size of the cranial base as measured from the 
root of the nose, the nasion, to the basion, the midpoint on 
the anterior margin of the foramen magnum, is of great 
importance. This length which forms part morphologically 
of the vertebral column is correlated with its length, as 
although the length of the column varies considerably, its 
component parts seem to retain consistently the same pro- 
portions. Thomson holds that if a small brain be imposed 
on a long base then the skull will be dolichocephalic, whereas 
the skull will be increasingly brachycephalic as the size of the 
brain is increased or the length of the base decreased. 

Thomson has also shown that the temporal muscles are 
relatively long in the long-headed races, and that there is 
a definite correlation between the size of the head and the 
length of the temporal muscles, combined with the associated 
shape and mechanism of the jaw. In the round-headed 
races, for instance, the masseter muscles tend to be more 
developed and the jaw is relatively wider and shorter than 
among the long heads who have a narrow long jaw. Keith 
(I. 16, 181) has objected to these theories on the ground that 
the muscles of mastication and of the neck undergo their 
greatest development between the twelfth and twenty- 
eighth years, before which time the brain has almost com- 
pletely attained its adult size and shape, and that all the 
evidence obtained from measurements in the living indicates 
that the changes in cranial form which take place then affect 
only its external contour, leaving the shape of the cranial 
cavity unaffected. 

While admitting that the association of head-form with 
muscular development is at present non-proven, and that 
there are many difficulties in the theory, at the same time 
there seems to be sufficient evidence to suggest an actual 
correlation, and the question of causal relationship is the 
matter which is at present in doubt. 

Whatever doubts then may exist in relation to the actual 
factors which determine head-form there can be little doubt 
that up to the present it forms the most convenient way of 
grouping the various types of man. In the first place, abun- 
dant data on the cephalic index have been collected by com- 
petent observers from probably more groups of people than 
on any other character. This in itself is of advantage when we 


20 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


are dealing with a large area. Secondly, among all the indices 
which are in frequent use the cephalic is the least variable. 
The mean is therefore most likely to represent the true mean 
of the race. Thirdly, in spite of narrow variations within 
the race, among mankind in general the mean cephalic index 
of various groups has a variation of about twenty per cent, 
a sufficiently wide variation to enable the observer to make 
groups which will not shade too much into one another. 
On the other hand, in certain respects the cephalic index is 
an unsatisfactory guide, because similarity of index is by no 
means an evidence of racial kinship, and races which are 
obviously related may have indices which differ very widely. 
The broad-headed German and the long-headed Scandinavian 
appear to belong to the same division of humanity yet they 
have a head shape which differs widely. According to the list 
given by Deniker at the end of his Races of Man the natives 
of the New Britain Archipelago, the Kanarese of Mysore, 
the Bashilanges of the Kasai (a tributary of the Congo), the 
Eskimo of Greenland, the Botocudos from South America 
and the Spaniards of Valencia all have a cephalic index 
which only differs by 0-1 per cent (that is, are identical), 
yet it could hardly be suggested that these peoples who 
include representatives of what are generally conceded to be 
the most widely divergent races, are in any sense akin to 
one another in a closer way than others who have a different 
cephalic index. Reicher has shown that the head-form of 
the Chinese does not differentiate them from the Dissentis 
type. whereas the facial measurements serve markedly to 
distinguish the two. 


It is clear then that in spite of its value and the general 
acceptance which it has received that the cephalic index is 
not a guide on which absolute reliance can be placed. It is 
possible that under certain circumstances it may be affected 
by the muscular development of the individual and other 
features which appear to be singularly sensitive to environ- 
ment. Individuals who are of very different racial stocks 
may have the same cephalic index, and what is more import- 
ant large groups of stocks which differ may have the same 
mean cephalic index. Conversely it seems not improbable 
that a difference in cephalic index does not necessarily mean 


INTRODUCTION aya! 


a difference of race. Against this we place the convenience 
of the cephalic index, the fact that it often does prove an 
undoubtedly good criterion of race and that it is of the 
measurements commonly taken the least variable. 

We have seen that the nasal index has by some writers 
been considered to be a good indication of race. Here again 
we find that races which appear for many other reasons to 
be unrelated to one another have identical indices. In con- 
junction with Professor Thomson I have discussed this pro- 
blem elsewhere (I. 18). Thomson had already suggested, in 
reference especially to the two Americas, that it could be 
demonstrated that the nasal index was correlated with certain 
climatic conditions, and that high indices were to be found 
in a damp hot climate and low in a cold dry climate, with an 
intermediate series corresponding to the different degree of 
these extremes. In the later paper evidence was brought 
from the whole world, which suggested that temperature was 
the most important influence and relative humidity the 
lesser. A survey of many nations however showed that 
although of course many exceptions do occur, it is possible 
to predict, with a fair degree of accuracy, the nasal index 
from a knowledge of the temperature and the relative 
humidity of the country in which the people live whose 
nasal index is under discussion. The Eskimo living in the 
Arctic have the narrowest noses, whereas a band of broad 
noses stretches across the world in the region of the tropics. 
Thomson has suggested that this distribution has resulted 
from the necessity that the air before being admitted to the 
lungs should be warmed and moistened so as to avoid injury 
to the delicate tissues of the lungs. In the conditions which 
prevail in tropical forest the air is both warm and moist 
and can be admitted to the lungs without the necessity of 
and the muscular energy involved in passing it through 
narrow channels. 

The correlation between the nasal index and climatic 
conditions is so high that some explanation must necessarily 
be found for the phenomenon. The exceptions which occur 
seem very probably to be due to over specialization or to 
the fact that the peoples investigated have not been subject 
to the conditions in which they now live for them to be 
affected by the climatic conditions; such an example may 


22 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


probably be found in the Australians and the Tasmanians, 
who have much broader noses than the environment would 
lead one to expect. 

At present however we do not know how long it is re- 
quired for environment to act on the human body, and it is 
not impossible that when the matter is more fully under- 
stood we shall find in the nasal index a valuable guide to the 
movements of peoples, especially when we find that a certain 
people have an index which seems to be at variance with 
their present surroundings but which is correlated with 
climatic conditions in an area from which it is suggested on 
other grounds that they may have migrated. It seems 
improbable that the nasal index will provide us with the 
original evidence, although even that is not impossible, but 
rather that from this source we shall obtain confirmation 
of what might otherwise remain merely an hypothesis. 

Stature has been considered by some writers to be a fair 
indication of race. It has been discussed with great lucidity 
by Ripley (I. 8,96) who sums up: “. . . it would appear that 
stature is rather an irresponsible witness in the matter of 
race. A physical trait so liable to disturbance by circum- 
stances outside the human body is correspondingly invali- 
dated as an indication of hereditary tendencies which lie 
within.”? The environmental features which appear to have 
an effect on stature may be grouped under several headings, 
climate, locality, food which is naturally related to the two 
first, health in relation to the group, and the influence of 
social selection. 

The effect of the direct influence of climate is at present 
uncertain, some of the tallest races of men live under most 
diverse climatic conditions. There are tall groups in North- 
western Europe, among those peoples whom Ripley has 
called Nordics ; the Nilotic Negroes living in the swampy 
region which surrounds the course of the Upper Nile have 
also great stature. The northern Chinese are markedly 
taller than their neighbours and their kinsfolk. The Pata- 
gonians of South America have become proverbial for their 
stature. The pygmy races, on the other hand, are for the 
most part confined to the tropics. Here they live side by 
side with other and taller races, and it seems difficult to 
correlate their stature with purely climatic conditions. As 


INTRODUCTION 23 


a general rule it would appear as though extreme conditions 
rather tended to be associated with shorter stature, but there 
is at present no reason to suggest that this is the effect of 
climate other than by indirectly affecting the food supply. 

Locality seems to have both a direct and an indirect effect. 
The latter is due to the different food supply which groups 
living under different conditions can obtain, and this is cor- 
related both with the climate and the position of residence 
of the people, the seashore in northern lands, the depths of 
a tropical forest, coral islands in the centre of the ocean and 
so forth. It has however been claimed that the stature of 
mountaineers tends to be shorter than that of the low- 
landers. Here again the testimony is very conflicting, and 
it is possible that the influence here is not the direct result 
of altitude so much as the effect either of different climatic 
conditions, the highlands being relatively colder, or of food 
supply which is usually more scanty on the hills than on the 
plain. Owing to the elevated position of much of Asia we 
shall have considerable opportunities of testing this theory 
when we come to deal with various peoples in detail. 

There can be little doubt that food has an important effect 
on stature. As a general rule those races whose food supply is 
scanty or unsatisfactory are shorter than their neighbours. 
It is not impossible that the pygmies of the tropical forests 
may be the result of a racial starvation of this sort. A 
tropical forest is an unpleasant place to live in and the 
inhabitants are often hard put to it for food. How far 
however the continued effect of generations of starvation 
can influence the race is uncertain, and the evidence at our 
disposal would suggest that the influence is more likely to 
be individual than racial. As far as I am aware the anthro- 
pological significance of vitamins has not yet been fully 
worked out, but it seems possible that some of the diets of 
savages are lacking in these necessities. On the other hand, 
I am informed that the diet of some primitive peoples of 
small stature, the Veddas of Ceylon for instance, contains 
all the component parts of a well-balanced diet. 

Collignon and after him Ripley have drawn attention to 
the presence of so-called “misery spots” where, owing to 
inclement surroundings and a condition of semi-starvation, 
the people are of a noticeably lower stature than their more 


24 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


fortunately situated neighbours. I have reason to believe 
that such misery spots exist in certain parts of Asia. During 
a short journey in the Fukien Province in South China I was 
very much impressed by the short stature of certain villagers, 
who seemed to be living on a totally inadequate diet. The 
Kuropean evidence suggests that when people migrate from 
the misery spots to the plains the stature of children 
regains the normal; we have unfortunately no evidence to 
say whether this does or does not occur in China, It seems 
however not unlikely that this may occur. Under such 
circumstances the misery spot would necessarily be con- 
sidered as a non-racial phenomenon affecting not the stock 
but those members of it who happened to be subjected to 
such unfortunate conditions. We are at present hardly in a 
position to distinguish between conditions which may be 
called ‘‘ individual” and those which are “ racial,’? as we 
have little data extending over many generations where 
conditions of food supply are known to have changed, or 
where we know that the same stock has changed its habitat. 

There seems to be good reason to believe that the stature 
of a stock is affected by the general conditions of health 
which prevail, and it has been suggested that such diseases 
as malaria may cause the average stature to deteriorate. 
Here again it would appear that such weakened vitality 
was to be considered rather as part of the individual than 
of the stock. 

Selection may no doubt play a great part in the develop- 
ment of stature; although, as Pearson has shown, where the 
descendants of tall individuals tend to approach the racial 
mean there are many complicated factors which play a part. 
In dealing with Asia we are faced with rather a different 
problem from that of Europe, because among the majority 
of the population the desire for children is very great and 
there is therefore a great prejudice in favour of fertility. 
Sterile marriages are the result of physical disability not of 
social causes, and owing to the prevalence of polygamy, 
sterility on the part of the female does not operate in the 
same way that it would in Europe. Vigorous strains have 
therefore every chance of surviving, and it seems that not 
infrequently stature, which is not excessively abnormal, is 
correlated with a vigorous strain. There would therefore 


INTRODUCTION 25 


be a tendency for selection to increase the stature. Another 
way in which selection may have affected the population 
of Asia is even more difficult to verify at present. Certain 
parts of that continent have been subjected to great cata- 
strophes which have destroyed millions. Usually the original 
catastrophe destroys both the strong and the weak. It is 
however not infrequently followed by a famine in which the 
strongest, who tend to have a stature above the average, 
survive. The great loss of life leaves the area less densely 
populated, and therefore the stature of the race, other things 
being equal, tends to increase slightly. 

I have sketched five of the ways in which environment 
may have a direct or indirect effect on stature. It will be 
seen that in many cases we are quite uncertain whether these 
effects are limited to the individual or whether they extend 
to the race. The data on which we base our anthropological 
conclusions are however collected from individuals, and it is 
seldom that we are in a position to estimate other than in 
a general way whether the characteristic stature which our 
measurements would assign to a particular group is really 
characteristic of the stock to which the individuals belong, 
or whether the village or town in which the observations 
were taken imposes some special restriction on stature. 
Different stocks may be differently affected, so that under 
certain circumstances we shall get the convergence of char- 
acters under different conditions; or again, similar conditions 
but different racial potentialities may produce different re- 
sults. It would seem therefore that at present we must take 
stature as we find it, remembering these difficulties and only 
eliminating it when we can definitely trace the direct effect 
of environment. 

The characters which I have so far been considering admit 
of definite measurement, and therefore although different in- 
dividuals may obtain results which differ slightly from one 
another, on the whole their disagreement will not be con- 
siderable. There remain however a number of characters 
which are less easy to observe. For descriptive purposes 
they may be considered as qualities rather than as quantities. 
Such features include hair, eye, and skin colour, and the 
form of the hair. Now we may say that a man has a cephalic 
index of 82, a definite number, but when we describe a man’s 


26 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


eyes as blue it is clear at once that we are open to miscon- 
ception because there are many shades of blue. Even if the 
observer provides himself with coloured glass, leather, or 
hair, he is still likely to make very grave errors, because it 
is notoriously a difficult matter to match shades, even when 
they are in the same medium. However, the difference of 
hair colour is less momentous in Asia than in Europe, as in 
the former continent the hair is, in the majority of peoples, 
black, and the eyes are usually brown. The texture of the 
hair varies, but, as in the majority of cases it is straight, the 
exceptions are all the more noticeable. The colour of the 
skin is a great problem in dealing with Asiatic peoples. It 
varies from an almost complete black to a white, which is 
hardly, if at all, darker than the skin-colour of Southern 
Europe. The skin-colour differs in different individuals of 
the same race, and on different parts of the body of the same 
individual. When we are dealing with quantities, we can 
conveniently get over this difficulty by working out the mean 
value of the quantity for the group. With qualities this is 
more difficult, and though several suggestions have been 
made, no satisfactory method has yet been evolved. This 
is all the more to be regretted, because undoubtedly skin- 
colour provides a convenient method of distinguishing some 
of the peoples of Asia. 

There can be little doubt that these characters, like those 
we have previously enumerated, can be affected by environ- 
ment. It is notorious that, on the whole, black colour is 
associated with a tropical climate. On the other hand, there 
are dwellers in the tropics who are by no means black, and 
the Negro in North America, who has been removed from 
his tropical home and has lived for generations in a more 
temperate climate, is still clearly differentiated by his dark 
skin from his fairer neighbours. Here again, then, as in the 
case of the nasal index, we have a character that would 
appear to be correlated with climatic conditions, but which 
persists even when those conditions are changed.’ The 


1 The following very remarkable observation is quoted by Grimble (I. 34, 
42). He states that in the Gilbert Islands “ a girl is bleached before marriage, 
she lives in a small thatched house in a cubicle in which the deepest gloom 
prevails. She is rubbed with coco-nut juice and massaged. After a few 
months of such treatment in a seclusion which no sunray ever pierced, the 
rich and dusky olive tint left her skin and she became pale with the dark 


INTRODUCTION 27 


pigmentation of the eye seems to be correlated with that of 
the skin, to which that part which carries the pigment is 
closely connected. The matter is, however, more difficult 
in this case, as although it is comparatively easy to recognize 
the different shades of skin and eye colour, when once the 
comparatively limited blue and hazel eyes are eliminated, are 
all classed as brown, although it would appear that the amount 
of pigment present varies very considerably. It is therefore 
almost impossible with the data at present available to come 
to any definite conclusion on this point. 

The colour of the hair is also a difficult matter. The pre- 
vailing colour in Asia being black, it would appear at first 
sight as though environmental conditions were but little 
connected with this colour; on the other hand, in Europe, we 
find that fair hair decreases, at least along the western sea- 
board, as we progress southwards. 

The texture of the hair does, however, differ very con- 
siderably in Asia. Apart from the curly-haired Negritos, 
whose hair differs from that of the majority of the inhabitants 
of Asia both in form and in texture, the straight-haired races 
differ very much, especially if the individual hairs be ex- 
amined; the Ainu, for instance, have hair which is very much 
greater in transverse diameter than that of their neighbours, 
the Chinese and the Japanese. 

With these difficulties before us, we must make a selection 
of those criteria which are to guide us in distinguishing be- 
tween the different peoples of Asia. It is clear that we can 
adopt no such simple classification as Ripley has adopted 
for Europe. In the first place, we possess less data than he 
had at his disposal. In the second, it will be found that 
though, no doubt, the cephalic index is of value in distinguish- 
ing the various races, its importance is local rather than 
general; we can use it to distinguish one tribe from its 
neighbours, but by this character alone we can hardly place 


paleness of some Spanish lady who never leaves her house until sunset. One 
still has the chance of judging what her appearance may have been because 
though the formalities of the Ko (this initiatory rite) have long been abandoned, 
many Gilbert women to this day continue to bleach themselves in private. 
The constant massage leaves the skin silken in texture and the beauty of the 
subject, though no longer of a merry and full-blooded type, is certainly en- 
hanced by etiolation.” I have not been able so far to find other observations 
on this curious practice, which almost amounts to an experiment on the nature 
of the pigmentation of the human skin, 


28 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


any tribe in its true place, phylogenically, among the peoples 
of Asia. The data, however, on the cephalic index is, per- 
haps, more abundant than for any other character, and 
therefore it must play an important part. 

Hair and eye colour, features of such value in Europe, 
can serve us but little in Asia, where the hair is almost 
universally black and the eyes brown; where, however, 
exceptions to this universal rule occur, they are of particular 
value. Differences in the nature of the hair, where variations 
from the straight variety occur, are similarly most instructive, 
and form a very clear basis for classification. 

Skin colour is hardly taken into account by Ripley, al- 
though his terms, blond and brunet, must naturally be taken 
to include the colour of the skin as well as that of the hair 
and eyes. In Asia, in spite of the fact that, as has been seen, 
skin-colour is a feature which is liable to be affected by 
environment, we have in it a guide which often serves to 
distinguish the broader grouping of races, even though, 
owing to its infinite gradations, it may fail when we are 
dealing with more local problems. 

Stature has appeared to be an uncertain guide, although, 
in spite of its uncertainty, we must remember that there is 
a close relationship between the stature of parents and that 
of children, and therefore even here we shall be able to rely, 
at least to a certain extent, on the evidence of stature. 

We have seen that the nasal index is related particularly 
closely to the climatic conditions under which people live. 
There can be little doubt, however, that the nasal index of 
adult offspring is correlated with that of their parents, 
although no exact data is available on the subject. Where 
we have different groups, more or less, in the same environ- 
ment, the nasal index may sometimes serve to distinguish 
them, and may even provide a guide or a suggestion as to 
their origin. 

It seems not improbable that we should find in Asia a 
valuable guide to race in the dimensions of the face, if a 
method could be devised which would show adequately the 
peculiar flattening which is so characteristic of some of these 
peoples. At present, however, no such method is in general 
use, and the ordinary measurements quite fail to show these 
remarkable characters. 


INTRODUCTION 29 


I have, so far, been considering the effect of environment 
on the human frame from what may be described as the 
static aspect. Such a method has, however, the obvious 
disadvantage that the races of man can by no means be 
considered as static. In all the continents there have been 
movements to and fro, and though it is possible to trace the 
effects of cultural migrations, it is more difficult, if not 
impossible, to trace the exact way in which physical migra- 
tions have advanced. It is clear that when we study the 
effect of environment in Asia to-day, we are acting on the 
presumption that the people we are studying have been 
in their present habitat sufficiently long for them to have 
the characters which that environment requires from their 
innate potentialities, or else that, as may in some cases be 
happening, each generation is responding inevitably to its 
surroundings, and the characters which are called racial 
are merely individual characters, but which are acquired 
by each individual owing to his response to his environ- 
ment. 

If there is no correlation between environment and those 
characters which are accepted as racial, we shall find that 
migrations will affect the population of given areas. Yet 
there have been innumerable invasions into China, especially 
from the north, and it has been alleged that these invasions 
have not altered the population of China, because the latter 
‘‘ absorbed ” their conquerors. We do not know whether 
this is a fact. If it is true, there remain two possibilities at 
least. The invaders may have been too few or of a recessive 
strain, and so may not have been biologically strong enough 
really to affect the population into whose midst they in- 
troduced themselves, or they may have changed in response 
to the effect of the new environment in which they found 
themselves. Parts of Asia do seem to have changed pro- 
foundly since we are first able to trace their history. Other 
parts, as far back as we can go, not very far it is true, 
do not seem to have had a population very different 
from the present. The history of Cyprus has been one of 
invasion after invasion; masters from the East and from 
the West have ruled the island; there are marked changes 
in culture at various periods. On the other hand, the in- 
habitants of a little Bronze Age village on the north coast, 


30 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Lapithos, had a population in the main hardly different 
from the population of the village built near by to-day. A 
selection of skulls of all sorts of dates from all over the island 
did not present any great differences at different periods. 
On the other hand, there did seem to be slight local differences 
in the proportion of Armenoid and Mediterranean blood 
between some villages and others. The two stocks had 
remained constant for over four thousand years. Whether 
there were slight differences between the villages in ancient 
times or not could not be determined from the material 
at hand. It did, however, seem that no essential change 
had taken place. The exact explanation of this problem is 
far to seek. 

We know that many races have met and mingled in 
Western Asia. The two stocks were Armenoid and Brown, 
and were both there in very early times. They were 
apparently present side by side even then. But at that 
time the long heads seem possibly to have been in the 
majority in the Mesopotamian region. The environmental 
effect can hardly have been to drive out the original in- 
habitants. 

While, therefore, strong arguments can be put forward 
which suggest that environment may be an important factor 
in shaping races, and the more or less staple form of most 
populations is the strongest argument in favour of this 
hypothesis, we do know that migrations have occurred in 
sufficient strength to change the population of a certain 
district, either by mixing with the aboriginal population, or 
it would appear in certain places apparently ousting them. 
It seems probable that those peoples who have mixed least 
with others show the least variation. Are we therefore 
justified in believing that they are in greater and more 
perfect equilibrium with their surroundings, or are we to 
consider that environment must be left out of count ? The 
arguments in favour of the effect of environment are, in some 
characters at least, too strong to be disregarded, but, on the 
other hand, migrations do appear not infrequently to in- 
troduce an alien strain, which coming from a different area 
should be out of harmony with the new surroundings. If 
environment were a potent factor, the new strain ought to 
change or die out; sometimes it does disappear, at other 


INTRODUCTION 31 


times it does not. It may be that we are dealing with too 
short a period in human history for us to look at this 
problem in the proper perspective, but that when we have 
more examples of fossil and sub-fossil man we shall be able 
to approach the difficulties with more certain steps. 


CHAPTER II 
Tue Races oF ASIA 


A. RACIAL GEOGRAPHY 


N the last chapter I have been considering the different 

races of man, the relation which exists between any 
race, and the environment in which that race lives. I have 
only dealt with environmental conditions and their relation 
to mankind in very general terms, and it is now necessary 
to discuss in broad outline, first, the actual environmental 
conditions in Asia, and secondly, the races which inhabit 
that continent, and to see how far, if at all, the two are 
correlated, with special relation to somatic rather than to 
cultural features. 

Ethnologically Asia cannot be separated from Europe, a 
point which has been made abundantly clear by Ripley in 
his monograph on the races of Europe. The northern part 
of Asia, together with all Europe except the Mediterranean 
seaboard, forms one biological area, and in the opinion of 
some anthropologists a single anthropological area. The 
Ural Mountains, although they form a prominent feature 
on most maps, do not impede the migrations of peoples, 
and to the south die away altogether. The real ethnological 
boundaries run east and west, and therefore only serve 
to divide peoples within the continents, and for the most 
part have emphasized the ethnological unity of the great 
Kurasiatic continent. 

But not only is Asia intimately connected with Europe. 
It has also a close connection with the other continents ; 
Africa may be said almost to be peripheral to it ; America, 
though contact is only close at one point, is ethnologically 
closely bound up with Asia. The Aleutian Islands form a 
bridge, or rather a series of stepping-stones, but they include 
big gaps filled by the stormiest seas in the world. The gap 
across the Bering Strait forms the closest link with America, 

32 


THE RACES OF ASIA 33 


a link which is made the easier by the presence of ice. Man 
almost certainly reached America from Asia by this route, 
and it is held by some anthropologists that there have been 
migrations back from America into Asia by this route. This 
connection is, however, one which has raised considerable 
controversy, and it is hardly necessary for our present 
purpose to do more than state that man has passed over 
the Bering Strait at least once, and possibly many times. 

The Pacific islands lie for the most part to the east and 
south-east of the great continental mass. They cover an 
immense area, but the land surface is relatively small; they 
are widely scattered, but the gaps between islands are often 
not great. Although the nearest island to the American 
coast is Easter Island (I am speaking here, of course, of the 
Oceanic islands, not those which organically form part of 
the American continent), they are separated from Valparaiso 
by a thousand miles of sea ; Europe first knew of the Pacific 
from its eastern shore, yet the islands have always had a 
closer connection with Asia than America. 

In general terms the islands may be described as spread- 
ing fanwise from the great archipelago of South-eastern 
Asia. It is by the route which follows these great islands, 
some of which probably formed part of the mainland at the 
time when man first lived in them, that most of the in- 
habitants of the Pacific started on their journeys to their 
distant homes. 

Professor Elliot Smith believes that the islands have 
actually formed a bridge over which culture has been carried 
to America, and although his conclusions have not been 
accepted by many anthropologists, there can be little doubt 
that in recent times a certain amount of Asiatic blood has 
been infused into America over the great breadth of the 
Pacific, although how far this has affected the population is 
a point yet to be studied. 

Although Oceania proper has probably been separated 
from the rest of the world for a long period, man and his 
companion, the dog, established themselves in the largest 
of the islands, Australia, at an early period, and also had his 
home on some of the land in the neighbourhood of this vast 
sub-continent. It seems likely that Asia has played its part 
in influencing the peopling of Australia; this event is so 

D 


34 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


remote in time that at present this island and Tasmania, 
and a few other islands, can be treated with little reference 
to what was almost certainly their mother-land. On the other 
hand, the connection of Asia with the seemingly more distant 
islands of Polynesia is recent and practically historical. 

Many anthropologists from Huxley (I. 5) onwards have 
believed that there survive in Asia peoples who are closely 
related to the Australian aborigines. It has been suggested 
by those who uphold these theories that the Australian 
aborigines are the last surviving descendants of peoples who 
once formed an important element in the population of Asia, 
until they were overwhelmed by races better equipped for 
the battle of life. 

Africa, from an ethnological point of view, may be de- 
scribed as almost peripheral to Asia. It has been influenced 
by, rather than has influenced, Asia. The connecting links 
are three. First, and probably most important, are the 
shores of the Mediterranean and the Mediterranean Sea 
itself. If it can be proved that in early times man was 
actually living in the Mediterranean basin while the land 
bridges between Europe and Africa were still in existence, 
and the work which has been done by Dr. Zammit in Malta 
suggests that this was the case, then the gap between Asia 
and Africa at this time was non-existent. Asia dominates 
the Eastern Mediterranean, and the narrow strip through 
which the Suez Canal is cut forms a means whereby many 
of the races inhabiting North Afriea to-day reached that 
continent. 

The second link between the two continents is found at 
the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. It is questionable how far 
people have passed that way. At present the hinterland on 
the Asiatic side is not suitable for racial migrations, but it 
is more than possible that since man has been in possession 
of this area the climate may have been less severe. 

At first sight it would seem somewhat of a paradox to 
suggest that the Indian Ocean had ever formed a means of 
connecting the two continents, and the third link in our 
chain. How far the actual mainland of Africa has been 
affected ethnologically by peoples passing over the sea is not 
clear. Apart, however, from a substratum consisting of an 
aboriginal Negro population, the majority of the inhabitants 


THE RACES OF ASIA 35 


of Madagascar belong ethnologically to Asia rather than to 
Africa (II. 2, 245), a feature which man shares with the flora, 
although the two can hardly be connected. 

Asia then, from her geographical position, has played an 
important part in the peopling of the other continents; in- 
deed, it may have been the original centre of dispersion of 
mankind, a point which will be discussed at greater length 
in the following chapter. Her seaboard is not relatively so 
extensive as that of Europe, but the eastern side of the 
continent looks out upon an ocean which, unlike the Atlantic, 
contains many islands which have formed the home of man. 
The Indian Ocean, which washes the southern aspect of the 
continent, has not, with the exception noted above, played 
an important part in the spread of mankind. 

The importance to ethnological history of the Mediter- 
ranean can hardly be exaggerated, but here it seems likely 
that it has enabled the peoples of Western Asia to spread 
westwards, and that on the whole the sea has not affected 
the actual distribution of the Asiatic peoples as much as it 
has affected the distribution of the European peoples. The 
Arctic Ocean washes the northern shore of the continent, 
but at least for our present purpose it may be disregarded, 
as it does not afford a means of communication. 

In later chapters I shall describe in greater detail the main 
features of the different parts of Asia and their relationship 
to mankind. Here it is more important to consider from 
a wider outlook these features in relation to the continent 
as a whole. Asia is divided by a series of mountain ranges. 
Centering from the Pamirs there are a series of uplifts 
which form high plateaux. They stretch through the great 
desert of Iran and are extended to the far-away mountains 
of Armenia and Anatolia. Eastwards there are a series of 
ranges which have had a profound effect on the history of 
mankind; they reach as far as the Pacific and are prolonged 
into the great islands of the archipelago. To the north lies the 
great plateau of Tibet and the Tarim basin, from which 
there radiate two great series of mountains, the Kun Lun, 
which eventually die down into the plain in Central China 
and form the escarpment on which the Great Wall of China 
is built; but physiographically the southern mountains of 
Japan form a continuation of that group. 


36 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


The Gobi is bounded on the north-west by a very large 
series of ranges which form the nursery for the headwaters 
of the great rivers of Siberia. Starting with the Altai Moun- 
tains in the west, the southern Altai run south-eastwards, 
and other ranges extend to the east and north-east, terminat- 
ing in the Yablonoi Mountains. The great gaps in these 
ranges, which form easy passages from the Mongolian plateau 
to the great plains of Siberia, have contributed to ethno- 
logical history, as they have allowed the passage of the 
Mongol hordes from their upland homes into the west. 

About two-fifths of the continent is built up of plateaux, 
and these ranges and plateaux, which separate the plains 
from one another, have provided nurseries for the de- 
velopment of peoples. Some of the plateaux are true or 
half-desert, and in places a true oasis type of culture has 
developed which has been followed usually by large migra- 
tions when, owing to some slight geographical or other 
changes, the delicate balance which makes an oasis possible 
has been disturbed. These plateaux and plains, which are 
of the greatest interest for our present study, are first the 
great tundra of the north, in which life is only possible under 
specialized conditions, but which have served as an ethno- 
logical link with North America. The Gobi, separated on 
the north and west from this last-named area by mountains 
and forests, and on the south by an escarpment which, even 
when surmounted by a wall, has not always proved an efficient 
boundary, is a second plateau area of great interest in ethno- 
logical history. In the great basin between the Tien Shan 
and the Kun Lun Mountains, there sprung up an oasis 
culture, but important as this area has been in the history 
of Asia, ethnologically it is of less significance. The great 
alluvial plain of China, separated from the Gobi by the 
escarpments of the Khingan Mountains, and from the Tarim 
basin by the Kun Lun, and from the south by an elaborate 
series of folded mountains, forms the delta of two great 
rivers, the Hwang Ho and the Yangtze. Just as structurally 
it is for the most part covered with material brought down 
from the uplands, so ethnologically it consists of a people 
who have absorbed into their midst the overflow from all 
the surrounding areas, and in spite of this has developed 
a type which, as we shall see, is one of extraordinary dis- 


THE RACES OF ASIA 37 


tinctiveness. The great plains of India, in spite of the ap- 
proaches, are shut off effectually from the rest of the continent 
and especially from the north-east, so that it has happened 
that most of the immigrants into that area have come from 
the west. Western Asia includes the great plateau of Iran, 
politically divided into Persia, Baluchistan and Afghanistan 
and Anatolia, which is connected with the former plateau 
by the bridge-land formed by the highlands of Armenia and 
Kurdistan, and separated from the plateau of Arabia by the 
great Mesopotamian region. North of this highland bridge- 
land the Iranian plateau stretches a plain which merges to 
the north-east into the great plain of Siberia, and ultimately 
into the frozen tundra of the north. 

Many of these uplands are continued out to sea in the 
form of islands. Those which fringe the Asiatic continent 
are some of the largest and in certain cases the most densely 
populated in the world. For our present purpose they may 
be divided into five groups, the Aleutian islands have already 
been mentioned in regard to their relation to America. 
The Japanese islands in the widest sense include a fringing 
line of islands from Kamscatka to Formosa. We may include 
in them, first, the Kuriles and Saghalien; secondly, Japan 
proper, although ethnologically Hokkaido (the northern 
island of Japan) belongs more properly to Saghalien than 
to Japan; thirdly, the Ryukyu Islands, and lastly Formosa 
(Taiwan). The third great group of islands differs in many 
ways from the last, and forms a distinct group, namely, the 
Philippines. The East Indian Archipelago, ‘“‘ Insulinde,’’ as 
it is usually called by Dutch and German writers, consists of 
a series of islands, some of great size, which have formed a 
bridge-land leading from Asia to the islands of the Pacific, 
on the one hand, and to Australasia on the other. The fifth 
series. of islands form a less definite group, but may be con- 
veniently called the Indian islands. They include Ceylon, 
which is closely connected with the mainland, and the more 
isolated groups of Andaman and Nicobar. 

A continent of the vast size of Asia naturally contains 
many rivers, some of them of great length. Not all of these, 
however, have played an equally important part in the 
history of mankind, and for our present purpose the follow- 
ing four groups are of the greatest importance: first, the 


38 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Tigris and the Euphrates, the streams which made possible 
the great civilization of Mesopotamia ; secondly, the Yangtze 
and the Hwang Ho, which, and especially the latter, formed 
the cradle of the Chinese people; thirdly, the rivers of India, 
and lastly, the great rivers of the north. These four groups 
have played different parts in the ethnological history of the 
continent. The first two together form an oasis in which 
life was concentrated, and thus, by its fertility in contrast 
to the neighbouring lands, constituted a place where different 
types of peoples have met from the earliest times of which 
at present we have any records. The area affected directly 
by these rivers is comparatively small, but owing to its 
favoured geographical position is of immense importance in 
early history. The Hwang Ho has played a very different 
part. Intimately associated as it is with the history of the 
Chinese, it has often been the destroyer as well as the life- 
giver. The river brings down immense quantities of silt, 
and gradually raises itself, so that it flows on the plain rather 
than through the plain. At intervals it breaks through its 
banks, and spreads over immense areas, causing great 
destruction of life. It has changed its course very con- 
siderably within historic times. The Hwang Ho, therefore, 
falls into a very different category from the rivers mentioned 
above. Together with the Yangtze it has built up an 
enormous fertile plain. While depending for its origin on 
the rivers, the great plain of China bears a different relation 
to them from that which Mesopotamia bears to its rivers. 
In the former case the plain is so vast that, ethnologically 
at least, its fluviatile origin may be said to have been for- 
gotten. The whole of the great flood plain is inhabited, and 
though owing its fertility to the rivers has spread far beyond 
a narrow river valley. 


The great rivers of India have again played a very different 
part in the history of the people from that taken by the 
rivers of China. In the north the influence of the Indus is 
closely parallel to that of the Nile. To the east the Gangetic 
valley forms a hot, extremely fertile area of great length in 
proportion to its breadth. Owing to conditions which 
favour the extreme growth of vegetation, the density of the 
population has become great, and owing to the possible 


THE RACES OF ASIA 39 


communications of this valley with the south-eastern part 
of Asia, it has in many ways a different ethnographic 
history from the rest of India. In Southern India, separated 
as it is from the north by the Narbada, rivers exercise a 
different function. The only important streams which flow 
to the west are the Narbada and the Tapti. Elsewhere the 
Western Ghats render the coast difficult of access, and the 
population has become concentrated, where concentration 
has occurred, in the deltas which look towards the east. 
None of the rivers have, however, so great an ethnological 
importance as those that have been mentioned before. 

In spite of their great length and size, the rivers of the 
north have not played a very important part in the ethno- 
logical history of the great plains of the north. An examina- 
tion, however, of any map which shows the distribution of 
Russian settlements, will make it very clear how these 
streams serve as means of communication along which alien 
culture and physique may pass. The distribution charts of 
the Russians show long extensions along the course of the 
Obi, the Yenesei, the Lena, and the Amur river, to mention 
the most important. Although most of the country has been 
penetrated, the foreign concentration has been quite clearly 
along the river lines, just as the early posts in North America 
stretched along the chain of the Great Lakes and up the 
Mississippi. 

Owing to its vast size Asia includes the greatest extremes 
of climate, from the very great cold of the north to the 
extreme heat of the south and south-east. It also varies in 
dampness from the moist supersaturated air of the tropical 
forests to the dryness of parts of the desert region. In the 
neighbourhood of the equator the climate is comparatively 
equable, elsewhere both the daily and annual ranges are 
very great. At present we know very little about the an- 
thropological effect of a varying temperature, but it seems 
not improbable that it is considerable. 

The extreme coldness of the north is due to the fact that 
the low-lying plains of Turan and Siberia are cut off from the 
warm influence of southerly winds by a very high mountain 
barrier. The winters are, therefore, much more extreme 
than in the corresponding area in America, where, owing 
to the general north and south trend of the mountains, the 


40 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


great plains are open alike to the influence of arctic and of 
tropical or sub-tropical weather. 

From the point of view of the study of mankind, it is most 
convenient to consider the climatic and the vegetational 
zones together, as the vegetation to a large extent reflects 
the climatic conditions in a concrete form. In the extreme 
north the country is tundra, the northern limit of which is 
the Polar Sea, and the southern boundary is the 50°F. 
isotherm in the hottest month, a limit which in very general 
terms is the northern boundary of the forest zone. Prac- 
tically the whole of the extreme eastern corner of the con- 
tinent is tundra, and tundra conditions are, at least to a 
large extent, reproduced in certain parts of Tibet. There 
is little precipitation in winter, and the subsoil never thaws. 
Owing to the prevalence of high winds the snow does not lie 
deeply on the ground. The cold of winter, however, makes 
it necessarily a waiting period, and most tundra peoples 
retire to the forests to avoid the rigors of the climate. With 
the end of the winter there is a sudden bourgeoning of life, 
the vegetation begins to grow and the inhabitants of the 
tundra leave the forests and retrace their way to the north. 
The country is characterized by its extreme barrenness and 
monotony ; there are no trees, only shrubs and dwarf bushes, 
in the more sheltered spots berry-bearing bushes grow, and 
the most characteristic fauna consists of the reindeer and 
various species of rodents. 

South of the tundra there are found great northern coni- 
ferous forests, characterized by such trees as laria siberica 
and abies siberica. These gradually give place to deciduous 
forests, which are made up for the most part of the familiar 
forest trees of Britain to-day; they also contain forest 
meadows with a flora like our meadows and hedgerows. 
The forest and meadow gradually changes to steppe. The 
boundary in very general terms may be considered to be 
south of the Irtish, the Altai Mountains and the Yablonoi 
range, though the steppes hardly extend very far east of the 
Khingan Mountains. 

The steppes may be conveniently divided into two types, 
depending very largely on the annual amount of rainfall. 
There are first of all the rich grass steppes. These are the 
great steppes of Siberia, which extend between the 50° and 


Oe — ee eee ee 


THE RACES OF ASIA Al 


55° parallels north latitude as far east as the Obi, and there 
are similar steppes south of the Altai and Yablonoi Moun- 
tains, and also in the upper valleys of the rivers which rise 
on the Tibetan plateau, in part of Turan, and on the south- 
west of the Iran. 

There are five regions which may be described as poor 
steppe, which often pass into true desert. First, there is the 
Turanian region, which includes the Caspian-Aral-Balkhas 
area and the Turkoman desert; secondly, the Taklamakan 
desert in the Tarim basin. To the north-east of this area 
stretches the Gobi, which is made up of a central core of 
poor steppe, with grass steppe round it. The Arabian desert 
is practically a continuation of the Sahara, with character- 
istic date-palm oases. The people in this region also show 
a marked similarity with the peoples of North Africa without, 
apparently, any Negroid affinities (but see page 104). Finally, 
Wwe may include in the poor steppe and deserts certain parts 
of the Iranian and Anatolian plateau. Practically all these 
regions have an annual rainfall which hardly exceeds ten 
inches. 

South of this region we have a sub-tropical area which is 
conveniently divided into the Western ‘“ Mediterranean 
area,” which has winter rains, and of which the most typical 
trees are the myrtle, the olive, the fig, the pomegranate, and 
the evergreen oak, and an eastern region with summer rains, 
usually known as the ‘Sino-Japanese area.” Here the 
flora and types of mankind differ very much from that which 
has become so familiar to us as typical of the Mediterranean. 
In spite of these differences, however, it is important to 
remember that both belong to a sub-tropical habitat, and in 
studying their differences the general similarity of the en- 
vironment must not be forgotten, even though the size of 
the areas and their general relation to the great land masses 
are very different. Further to the south we find a great 
savanna region, a land of tropical meadows. It includes 
parts of Southern Arabia, India, Indo-China, and the more 
lofty parts of Ceylon and the Malay archipelago. The first- 
named is more closely connected with the African than with 
the Asiatic savanna. 

Much, though not all, of this savanna region has a very 
high rainfall, and like the temperate meadow is characterized 


42 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


by the presence of many species of gramines. Much as in 
Western Europe, the meadow and deciduous forest has been 
the birthplace of culture, so in South-eastern Asia man has 
found the tropical savanna the place where he could best 
develop. This matter is of great importance, because whereas 
in the former continent we find such a large proportion of 
the people have apparently become physically adapted to 
the climatic conditions which prevail in the deciduous forest 
meadows, a very large proportion of the inhabitants of Asia 
appear to be more closely en rapport with the climatic con- 
ditions of tropical savannas. 

South of the savannas and on the lowlands we find the 
extreme type of tropical climate which makes for the growth 
of tropical forests. Here we have a high temperature, 
though often not so high as in some deserts, a very heavy 
rainfall and a high relative humidity. Owing to the high 
temperature this must necessarily mean also a high absolute 
humidity. The great growth of the forest trees and the 
denseness of the forest produce conditions which are very 
different from those prevailing in the other areas. There 
can be little doubt that these conditions have had a very 
great effect on mankind, and though the typical inhabitant 
of the equatorial rain-forest belongs to Africa rather than 
Asia, yet certain of the peoples in the forest belt of the latter 
continent appear to possess characters which seem to be 
closely correlated to the very special conditions under which 
they live. 


B. THE “ WHITE”? AND ‘‘ BROWN” RACES 


The races of Asia have been very differently classified by 
the systematic anthropologists, the difference in classifica- 
tion depending partly on the criteria which have been 
adopted (although in that there is now a fairly general 
agreement), and partly in the different use of the nomen- 
clature. In some cases the same terms have been used to 
mean different things, and equally frequently it will be 
found that a different nomenclature really conceals a simi- 
larity of race. Before giving them the nomenclature which 
I propose to adopt, it may be convenient to give some of 
the classifications which have been generally adopted in 
the textbooks at present current, 


THE RACES OF ASIA 43 


Deniker (I. 9, 865) suggests that there are eleven races, 
of which five are peculiar to Asia, namely, the Dravidian, 
the Assyroid, the Indo-Afghan, the Ainu, and the Mongolian. 
Six are met with in other parts of the world, namely, the 
Negrito, the Indonesian, the Arab, the Ugrian, the Turkish, 
and the Eskimo. Their distribution he defines as follows : 
‘‘The Eskimo in the north-east of the continent, the Ainu 
in Saghalien, Yezo, and perhaps in Northern Japan. The 
Ugrian race is represented by its Yeneseian variety. The 
Mongolian race, with two secondary races, northern and 
southern, is found almost all over Asia. The Turkish race 
is limited to the inland regions of Central Asia. The Indo- 
nesians are numerous in Indo-China and in the islands from 
Japan to the Asiatic Archipelago, while the Dravidians and 
Indo-Afghans abound in India. The latter are also met 
with in anterior Asia side by side with Assyroids and Arabs. 
Some representatives of the Negrito race inhabit the Malay 
peninsula and the Andaman Islands; the elements of this 
race are also found among the inhabitants of Indo-China 
and perhaps India.” 

The difficulty about this classification, comprehensive and 
convenient as it is, may be found if we study the terms 
which are used. Some of them are essentially linguistic. 
Turkish, Ugrian, and Dravidian connote certain known 
languages, or groups of languages, and the use of these terms is 
unsatisfactory when applied to physical anthropology, since 
physical and linguistic types are by no means correlated. It 
would also appear that Deniker himself recognized the dffi- 
culties of his classification, either from a linguistic or physical 
point of view, as he appears for the most part to abandon it 
in his detailed treatment of the peoples of Asia. 

Joyce (II. 2) has stated that : ‘‘ The Mongolians are roughly 
divided into two great groups, the northern and the southern, 
the former including the Manchu, Coreans, Mongols, Turko- 
mans, Turko-Finns, and Magyars; the latter, the Japanese, 
Indo-Chinese, Tibetans, and some of the inhabitants of 
Malaysia.” The minor divisions within the groups he de- 
scribes as “ethnical families,” without further defining 
exactly what he means by these terms. It will be seen, 
however, that his use of the term “ Mongolian” is very 
different from that of Deniker, 


44, THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Haddon (II.12) has a classification which differs very 
considerably from those which I have outlined above. He 
admits the following : first, the Mongoloid peoples. Beyond 
stating that they are brachycephalic, he does not describe 
them further, but distinguishes them from his second group, 
the ‘ Alpines,” of whom he sees the presence in Asia of 
both short and tall varieties. Thirdly, he mentions “‘ two 
main brachycephalic”’ peoples, the Turki and the Ugrians, 
who were doubtless of more or less common origin; usually 
they are stated to be a very early cross between Proto- 
Nordics and Alpines, with, in places, occasional Mongol 
mixture. On the other hand, they may be descendants of 
an intermediate variety between the two former types. We 
have then four different races, all of whom are said to be 
physically distinct, but who all have the common trait of 
brachycephaly. The two latter are suggested to have found 
their origin in the Altai and the upper waters of the Yenesei 
respectively, and possibly to have been the ancestors of the 
ancient Sumerians. Haddon’s next race he describes as 
“brunet dolichocephals.”” They are, he says, scattered in 
South-east Asia as, for example, the Man-tse of South China, 
and an essential element in the Indonesians, and possibly 
also of the Dravidians. They appear to coincide with the 
people whom Elliot Smith terms ‘“‘the Brown race,” but 
have a somewhat wider distribution. 

Haddon is very careful to define the Proto-Malays as 
Mongoloid brachycephals, a definition of great importance. 
Most authorities agree with him on this point, and it would be 
of great advantage if the undoubted Mongolian element among 
the peoples of the Archipelago and Malaysia were definitely 
called by this name. MHrdlicka (II. 13), however, seems to 
confuse them with Indonesians, the confusion, of course, 
being purely verbal, and the same difference of terminology 
appears, as far as I can understand, in the excellent mono- 
graph of De Zwaan (II. 14) on the island of Nias, although 
in this case it is difficult to disentangle the author’s own 
views from those of the authorities whom he quotes. The 
Ainu are considered by Haddon to be an outlier of the 
Alpine race, a theory that he appears to have modified in his 
last book. Finally, there is a ‘“‘ black woolly-haired race, of 
which the Pygmy representatives, Negritos, the Andamanese, 


See 2 ee 


a. a 


THE RACES OF ASIA 45 


the Semang of the Malay Peninsula, the Aeta of the Philip- 
pines, and the pygmies of New Guinea; the taller varieties 
are the recently extinct Tasmanians who walked from New 
Guinea to Tasmania, the Papuans proper, and the ground 
stock of the Melanesians.”’ 

It is difficult in a résumé to do justice to the many brilliant 
suggestions of Haddon’s small volume, and recently he has 
suggested another classification. This new grouping was 
originally put forward by Giuffrida-Ruggeri (II. 15), but 
Haddon has adopted it with some modifications in the last 
edition of his book on the Races of Man (I. 19). 

The grouping has the advantage that it is simple and 
direct, and by the use of Latin words it avoids much of the 
confusion arising from different meanings being attached 
to the same terms. Apart from the Negritos, the inhabitants 
of Asia are divided into Leucoderms and Xanthoderms, 
White and Yellow man. The Leucoderms are divided into 
two groups, Dolichomesocephals and Brachycephals. The 
former are divided again into three sub-groups, Indo- 
Afghanus, Irano-Mediterraneus, and Indo-Iranus. The Indo- 
Afghanus is dolichocephalic, leptorrhine, and of medium to 
tall stature; they include such peoples as the Afghan, the 
Balti, Kashmiri, Dardi, Rajput, Panjabi, Sikh,! ete. It is 
suggested that their area of characterization was between 
the Hindu Kush and the Sulaiman Mountains, whence they 
spread into North India, and possibly eastwards also. This 
type appears to correspond closely to Risley’s Indo-Aryan 
type, which will be discussed on page 187. The Irano- 
Mediterraneus is described by Haddon as a somewhat in- 
definite group, it is mesocephalic, leptomesorrhine, and from 
medium to very tall stature. It appears to correspond in 
part to Ripley’s Iranian type (I. 8, 448 ff.),2 and includes 
the Persians and various other peoples in the Near and 
Middle East. ‘‘ There is no reason to doubt that there is a 


1 This is an oversight on Haddon’s part, the Sikhs are a religious not an 
ethnic group. 

* The word Iranian is unfortunately open to considerable confusion, 
Ripley, l.c., clearly expresses his view that the Iranian physical type is akin to 
the Mediterranean, and by accepting the term Irano-Mediterraneus, Haddon 
apparently does lip service to the same idea, but elsewhere he uses Iranian as 
a synonym of Pamiri, a very different racial group. The latter use of the 
term is the most general one, but many authors have followed Ripley. The 
question is more fully discussed on page 112. 


46 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


substratum of population in this group with a C.I. of about 
76, a N.I. of about 61-63, and a stature of about 1-633 m. 
(644 in.), which may very well be termed Mediterranean, 
as other characters conform to that type; these may be 
regarded as the laggard representatives of a group that 
wandered mainly westwards.” 

The Indo-Iranus includes the Baluchi, Dehwar, and Brahui, 
who are on the border-line between meso- and brachycephaly 
and leptomesorrhiney; the stature is from medium to tall. 
‘“They may be regarded as an intermediate or mixed 
type.” 

The White brachycephals are divided into two groups, 
Georgianus and Armeno-Pamiriensis. The first class includes 
the Grussini, Svani, Mingreli, and Imeri. ‘“ This type shows 
slight brachycephaly, strong leptorrhiny, and medium 
stature.” The second group is divided by Haddon, who 
differs slightly from Giuffrida-Ruggeri into two divisions : 
the first Pamiri or Iranian,! is strongly brachycephalic, 
leptorrhine, and medium to tall in stature. The second 
subdivision, Armenian, is characterized by very high heads, 
a vertical occiput, an extremely prominent and characteristic 
nose, and seem to be slightly taller. ‘ 

The Asiatic Xanthoderms are grouped into three main 
divisions, Mesocephals, Brachycephals, and a second group 
of Brachycephals. The first include Protomorphus, Pale- 
arcticus, Tibetanus, and Sinicus. The first subgroup includes 
the so-called “aboriginal tribes” of China and Assam. 
Haddon adds that they are probably more closely allied to 
the Leucoderms than to the Xanthoderms. If we are to fit 
them into Giuffrida-Ruggeri’s scheme, we must either widen 
the Irano-Mediterraneus, so as to include small statures, or 
give them a separate class. The Palearcticus only belongs 
in part to this group; as some of the Palearctic peoples are 
round-headed, it is, as we shall see, more a cultural than a 
physical classification. It is said to be distinguished by 
platycephaly, which, however, occurs among other peoples 
not in this group. Only part of Tibetanus is included among 
the Mesocephals, the typical peoples being such tribes as the 
Lepcha and the Eastern Tibetans. The fourth subgroup is 
Sinicus, and includes the Chinese. 


1 See previous footnote on use of the word * Iranian.” 


THE RACES OF ASIA AT 


The first group of Brachycephals includes Altaicus and 
Nearcticus among its subgroups. The first includes many 
of the Altaian folk, and the latter the Chukchee. 

The second group of Brachycephals has four subgroups, 
Meridionalis, confined to Burma and Assam, the “ brachy- 
morphus” branch of Palearcticus and Tibetanus, and Cen- 
tralis, including Manchu, Southern Tungus, Buriat and 
other Mongol tribes, such as Torgut and Taranchi, and the 
Hazara in Afghanistan. 

On this scheme Haddon’s comment is. of interest, and 
may be quoted: ‘The foregoing arrangement is based 
mainly on the cephalic index, nasal index, and stature, and 
I have borrowed it with modifications from Giuffrida- 
Ruggeri, as it is an interesting attempt to reduce the chaos 
of Asiatic racial anthropology by adhering closely to anato- 
mical data, but even so there are several unclassified groups. 
A consideration of other characters, doubtless, will lead to 
a modification of the scheme.” 

This criticism draws attention to the weakest points in 
the scheme, which are serious omissions, and too great an 
attention to certain limited characters, especially the cephalic 
index, which leads to serious difficulties when followed too 
closely. The author has also failed to pay any attention to 
biometric work, as an indication of the reliability of an 
index figure. 

The comparatively minute division is one which is espe- 
cially open to serious objection. Although it is, no doubt, 
possible to recognize what appear to be local divisions, the 
narrower subdivisions of mankind seem to run so closely 
into one another that it is to be doubted often whether 
they may not be considered as strains, due to in-breeding, 
or other local or environmental causes. The minute sub- 
division masks the merging of groups into one another, and 
often fails to take account of the mixing of different races. 
If we are, for instance, to follow out logically the sugges- 
tions which Giuffrida-Ruggeri puts forward, we must have 
a group which is half White and half Yellow, for certainly 
some of the people he mentions might be placed in either 
group. 

If we approach the classification of the peoples of Asia 
from the purely physical standpoint, and we must remember 


48 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


that the majority of the authors we have been considering 
took other criteria into consideration, we may, provisionally 
at least, adopt three main stocks, although so much mixing 
has taken place that it is difficult always to find pure ex- 
amples of any of them. Races have mixed, and the resulting 
mixture has blended so closely together that it has become 
a compound, and instead of a high degree of dispersion we 
have the low one that is normally found in pure races. In 
spite of this fact, however, it seems clearer for systematic 
purposes to adhere to the larger divisions, and to disregard, 
at least for the moment, those separate divisions which 
appear to have been evolved from the hybridization of the 
main stocks. 

The three main stocks are, first, a very large group of 
peoples who are akin to the races of Europe, the type which 
has often since Blumenbach’s time been called Caucasian, 
and which very frequently is known as “ White.” The 
second group are conveniently known as the Yellow race ; 
they are often known as Mongolians, or Mongoloid, a name 
that I shall have occasion to criticize in the sequel. Thirdly, 
there is a stock which is probably more widely divided from 
the other two than they are from one another, namely, the 
Negrito. It is possible, as will appear, that we should also 
include in our survey of the peoples of Asia the fourth great 
group of humanity, the Red man, for there are undoubtedly 
tribes in Asia who are closely allied to the aboriginal in- 
habitants of North America, but probably we may include 
them as a specialized branch of Yellow man. 

The stocks akin to the races of Europe can be distinguished 
from the other races most clearly by the following characters : 
Fair, or brown hair, where it occurs, may be said to be a 
certain guide, but over most of Asia the hair is black and the 
eyes brown, in spite of different racial affinities. The cephalic 
index, though sometimes providing a useful guide, is not 
always of value, as the stocks which we are discussing include 
tribes which possess the extreme variations in this index of 
the human race. On the other hand, it seems probable, as 
far as we know at present, that long heads do not occur 
among the representatives of Yellow man, except as in- 
dividual cases, and that the means of groups always tend 
to meso- or brachycephaly. Where, therefore, we are un- 


THE RACES OF ASIA 49 


certain whether a particular group belongs to that race or 
not, the cephalic index may sometimes form a useful, al- 
though not an absolute, guide. 

The texture of the hair, while again not forming an in- 
variably good criterion, will often serve to distinguish our 
first and second classes. The races akin to those of Europe 
often, but not invariably, have wavy or curly hair, and 
though sometimes a mixture between the straight hair and 
the woolly Negrito may cause a type of wavy hair, this 
latter is usually quite distinct from the normal wave of 
the European, or of his kinsmen in Asia. 

Skin-colour would appear at first sight to be a good guide, 
but we shall find people who seem to be akin to the White 
races who have a very black skin, and there are innumerable 
shades of brown which link up the gaps in between. The 
absence of any yellowish tinge in the skin is, however, a 
criterion which will usually distinguish our first and second 
classes. Stature, nasal index, and other measurements, 
though often of value in the discrimination of local races, 
hardly serve when we generalize. If we are really to dis- 
tinguish the two races we must take a complex of characters, 
a complex that could doubtless be easily multiplied, but which 
usually makes itself clear enough, if we consider those which 
have been enumerated. 

The stocks which I have described by the somewhat 
cumbrous title of races akin to the inhabitants of Europe 
may be divided into several groups; we have already seen 
that Ripley has three such divisions, Nordic, Alpine, and 
Mediterranean. We shall see that later observers have to a 
certain extent assailed his position, especially in regard to 
the two latter “races.” Representatives of all three races 
occur, as Ripley himself showed in Asia. They must there- 
fore be discussed in comparative detail. The Nordics are 
tall with long heads and fair hair. These are the chief 
characters on which Ripley relies. They are usually of a 
muscular build, with well-marked ridges over the brows 
among the males, and big bones in both sexes. The cranial 
capacity is large, and the skull tends to be well filled and of 
an even curve when viewed in profile (norma lateralis). The 
nose is usually comparatively narrow and long, both rela- 
tively and absolutely. The orbits are large. The jaws are 


E 


50 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


often, especially in early specimens, heavy, and the ascending 
ramus is usually high. 

It has become usual to speak nowadays of Pre-Nordics 
and Proto-Nordics. These are suppositions based, for the 
most part, on the evidence of the distribution of the present 
Nordic race; we cannot, at present, describe the anatomy 
of the Proto-Nordics in the same way that we can describe 
the anatomy of the Proto-Egyptians. 

The present area of characterization of the Nordics is the 
Scandinavian peninsula. Their original home is discussed 
on page 77. They are found in Western Europe in diminish- 
ing number as we leave the Baltic area. At one time they 
appear to have penetrated far to the south, and some authors 
suggest that they formed an appreciable portion of the 
leaders of the Sumerian population. At present, however, 
we haye no definite evidence on this point. Among the 
ancient crania from the Thebaid in the collection in the 
Department of Human Anatomy in Oxford, there are speci- 
mens which must unhesitatingly be considered to be those 
of Nordic type. If this is so, it would seem that they probably 
entered Egypt with the other alien elements which began to 
filter in from Asia in early dynastic times. 

How far the Nordics ever formed any appreciable element 
in the population is doubtful, but these specimens prove 
their existence. It is of particular interest to find this long- 
headed type on the shores of the Mediterranean in early 
times, because some authors, notably Giuffrida-Ruggeri and 
Fleure (II. 16, 97), have believed that there is no ultimate 
distinction between them and the Mediterranean race, except 


that the Nordics have specialized, possibly owing to a colder 


environment. 

The two races, or sub-races, have little in common except 
their cephalic index. The Nordics have been in possession 
of the northern part of the North Sea area since the melting 
of ice permitted them to enter that region. It is curious, 
however, that they have sometimes advanced over the 
domain of the Mediterraneans, and sometimes have receded 
before them. For instance, in England to-day some observers 
are inclined to believe that the Nordics, who originally drove 
the Mediterranean population from these islands, are now 
in turn being swamped by them. This has been put forward 


THE RACES OF ASIA BE 


as an additional argument that they are both varieties of 
the same stock; this, on the whole, though possible, seems 
unlikely (the matter is further discussed on page 77). 

That the Nordies occur in Asia is, as I have said, probable, 
but there does not at present seem to be a good case for their 
occurrence, except mixed with other elements, and the writers 
who suggest, for instance, their presence among the Sumerians, 
do not seem to have any cranial evidence to support their 
arguments. There is, however, as we shall see, a large popu- 
lation which is probably alien to the “ Proto-Nordics.” 

As we advance south-eastwards from the Mediterranean 
west of the high plateau which forms the eastern boundary 
of the land of the rivers, and so into the great sub-continental 
area of India, south, that is to say, of what appears to have 
been the glaciated zone in glacial times, and for the most 
part south of boundaries which have remained some of the 
greatest obstacles to the migration of man throughout the 
historic period, we find that the bulk of the population, 
though by no means everyone, belongs to the same race. 
In this area few or none of the people are actually white 
of skins most are brown. They are slenderly built, have 
rather small noses and long heads, which vary considerably in 
their dimensions ; their hair is straight or curly, and their 
eyes are brown. They have but little hair on the face or 
body. If we look at them in profile, the most striking char- 
acter is the great bulge of the skull at the occiput. The 
forehead is smooth and rather prominent and, owing to the 
poor development of the brow ridges, it lacks that powerful 
appearance which has become famous under the name of 
the “ bar of Michael Angelo.” This absence of brow ridges 
is no doubt due to the lack of muscularity which is char- 
acteristic of these peoples. It is further borne out when we 
examine their skulls, for we find that the jaw is lightly made, 
that there is a slender development of the zygomatic arches, 
and that there is a general absence of those ridges which are 
prominent on very muscular individuals of many races. As 
we advance further to the east we find that the skin gradually 
grows darker. In Southern India and Ceylon people who 
have a skin-colour that is almost black still appear to have 
a skull form which in its essentials does not differ from that 
which has been described above, and which might serve as 


52 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


a generalized description alike of the majority of the in- 
habitants of Egypt, whose traits have been brilliantly 
described by Elliot Smith in his book on the Ancient Egyp- 
tians (II. 17), for many of the dwellers on the eastern shores 
of the Mediterranean, and for a greater part of the population 
of Mesopotamia, although, as we shall see later, they are 
intensive in part of that area. In India, and elsewhere in the 
tropical zone, the character which especially distinguishes 
the men of this type from those who live more to the north- 
west is, apart from their colour, the great size of the nasal 
index. This, I have explained in a previous chapter, is 
possibly due to environmental conditions. There are, no 
doubt, sub-races of this type, especially in India. Further 
to the east a final extension of this Brown race appears in 
the Nesiots (‘“‘ Indonesians ’’), whose physical characters will 
be discussed at greater length in a later chapter. All these 
various peoples seem to have sufficient in common to warrant 
our classing them as one branch of humanity. Their dif- 
ferences within themselves are also great, but for the most 
part are concerned with three types of character, first skin- 
colour, secondly stature, and thirdly nasal index, all of 
which have been seen to be singularly responsive to en- 
vironment, and therefore convenient for distinguishing 
groups within the race, but of little value in dealing with the 
great racial divisions of mankind. 

It would seem then that, if the assumptions which have 
been detailed are correct, we have several branches of a race, 
which so far we have been considering as the Brown race, 
fringing the south-western aspect of the Asiatic continent. 
In the West it is known as the Mediterranean race, in the 
centre as Brown, in India there is no definite name which has 
been applied to it, although, as we shall see in the chapter 
dealing with that country (see page 187), probably most 
of the Dravidian tribes can claim kinship with this same 
race. It has been called Oriental by Fischer (II. 18 and 
II. 19, 456), but this term is open to confusion, as Deniker 
uses it in a different sense, and recently Morant has used 
it in yet another significance. The most easterly extension 
of this race I have termed Nesiot in order to avoid the con- 
fusion which has arisen from the use of the linguistic term 
Indonesian to mean also a physical type. 


THE RACES OF ASIA 53 


There remains a further branch of the European stock. 
This is termed “ Alpine”? by Ripley. Recent work has 
suggested that possibly, even in Europe, it should be sub- 
divided into Alpine and Dinaric (see especially II. 19, 101), 
the latter being distinguished from the former, especially by 
the greater stature which is usually found among its members. 
It seems probable that both Alpine and Dinaric are repre- 
sented in Asia. There remains a third branch of this race, 
generally known as the “ Armenoid,’”? which is one of the 
most important elements in Western Asia. This branch 
has also been called West “ Asiatische Rasse,” and Hittite, 
and by many authors has not been distinguished from the 
Alpine branch. 

All the members of this group of races differ from the 
Mediterranean and Nordic in having round heads. Associated 
with this the general architecture of the skull is very different. 
The jaw, instead of being comparatively long, and often 
relatively feeble, is broad, and often, though by no means 
invariably, well developed. This breadth of the jaw may 
no doubt be associated with a broad cranial base. The nose 
is sometimes very well developed, and among certain branches 
is noticeably large. The cheeks tend to be broad and ‘often 
slightly flattened, the brow-ridges, without being large, are 
well developed. The pilous system is more abundant than 
in the first group, and there is plenty of hair on the face and 
often on the body. 

Elliot Smith has described these peoples in his work on 
the Ancient Egyptians. He calls attention first to the fact 
that, although these people may even have dolichocephalic 
heads, they universally have a large cranial capacity. That 
some cases may be found even with dolichocephalic heads 
should cause no astonishment, for, especially in cases where 
a certain amount of racial admixture has taken place, 
the normal variation of the group is always large, and he 
has clearly shown that we are dealing with a group of crania 
which in Egypt, at least, is much more variable than the 
Proto-Egyptians. Generally, however, these people, else- 
where than in Egypt, and anywhere where they are found 
in a relatively pure state, are markedly round-headed. In 
many cases the head is distinctly high and has a flattened 
occiput, in great contrast to the bulging occiput which is 


54 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


found in Mediterranean man. It is probable that these 
differences may be correlated with the difference in the bulk 
of the brain. Mediterranean man tends to have a small 
brain; Alpine man, on the other hand, tends to have a 
large one. In order to accommodate this increase in size, 
he will tend to have, as has been shown above, a rounder 
head. Where, however, the base of the skull is long, even the 
increase of the size of the brain will not serve entirely to 
secure a round form. 

But as we are dealing in three dimensions, not only will 
the cephalic index be affected, but also the height of the skull, 
which is, as would be expected, greater than in the Mediter- 
ranean peoples. The form of the forehead is also different. 
Where the top of the skull is high-domed the forehead tends 
to be vertical, but where the top is flattened the forehead 
tends to be sloping. Such a difference is, no doubt, to be 
expected from the different architectural necessities of the 
individual skull in the two cases. 

The form of the jaw among the Alpine peoples is usually 
a very distinctive trait. In the Mediterraneans the jaw is 
usually small. The ascending ramus is broad, both relatively 
and absolutely, and the sigmoid notch is shallow. This 
type of jaw is frequently correlated with dolichocephalic 
skulls and resembles in general form, though not in detail, 
the jaws of many primitive dolichocephalic peoples. The 
jaw of the Alpines, on the other hand, has a long and narrow 
ascending ramus. The sigmoid notch is deep, and the coro- 
noid process is long. It is, in fact, the type of jaw which 
is built rather for rapid movement than for slow, forceful 
action. Elliot Smith, in discussing the difference between 
the jaws of these two races, draws attention to the features 
which I have described, and lays stress on the fact that they 
are racial and not environmental features. Although there 
can be little doubt that as racial features they are of the 
greatest value in distinguishing between the two groups, yet 
the arguments put forward so forcibly by Thomson suggest 
that environment and habit may have played an important 
part in moulding the features which have afterwards, as it 
were, become crystallized into ‘“racial”’ characters. 

The form of the orbit is, as Elliot Smith has pointed out, 
another convenient method of distinguishing between these 


97 ims 


THE RACES OF ASIA 55 


two minor groups of mankind. In the Alpine type they are 
slanting, in the Mediterranean straight, that is to say that 
in the latter a line drawn along the upper margins of one 
orbit would, if produced, follow the upper margin of the 
other, but in the Alpine race would pass above in at an 
angle. It seems not improbable that this different form of 
orbit is correlated, partly with the form of the jaw and 
partly with the architecture of the nose, which differs con- 
siderably in the two groups. In the Alpine, apart from the 
nasal index, which has been shown to be correlated with 
environment, the Alpine peoples normally have a much 
bigger and more prominent nose, and not infrequently con- 
siderable thickening of the integument in the neighbourhood 
of the nostrils. 

There are other characters which could be selected to 
distinguish these peoples, but those which I have enumerated 
are some of the most important. I have used the word 
‘‘ Alpine” in referring to the broad-headed peoples, whom 
Elliot Smith, speaking from the point of view of an Egyp- 
tologist, terms Aliens. This term has been used for want of 
a better, for these peoples include not only those whom Ripley 
calls Alpines, but other sub-races which are undoubtedly akin 
to them. 

In Europe these include the true Alpines, described by 
Ripley as having broad heads, medium stature, and eyes 
that are hazel or brown. These people have a wide distribu- 
tion in Asia. In certain parts of Europe, notably the east 
coast of the Adriatic, but extending into Hungary, a type 
occurs which some authorities, notably Deniker, believe to 
be a definite variety of the Alpine; they have termed it 
Dinaric, and notice, as a principal character, that the stature 
is greater than in the normal Alpine. Ripley, who considers 
stature to be an uncertain guide, does not believe that 
this type is worthy of subdivision. As far as our knowledge 
goes at present there does not seem to be any direct evidence 
for the occurrence of this type in Asia, although there is 
every possibility that further analysis may show that it 
exists. 

A more important type is that which has been termed 
Armenoid. In the pure Armenoids it would seem as if the 
stature were medium to short, the hair almost invariably 


56 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


black, or black-brown, and eyes but seldom hazel and usually 
brown. The nose is very large, and differs considerably in 
index. The head is flattened behind, and usually very high, 
sloping to a point well behind the bregma. Often the brow- 
ridges are largely developed, a character which Duckworth 
(II. 20) found in a skull he examined from Syria, and a 
feature which I observed very frequently in a large series 
of Bronze Age skulls which I excavated at Lapithos in Cyprus. 
This type is found in Eastern Europe, it forms a very im- 
portant element, and perhaps the aboriginal stock of the 
population of Western Asia. It occurred in ancient Kish, and 
is to be found in Mesopotamia to-day, and extends into 
India. It probably also forms part of the population of 
Central Asia. It does not appear to occur in the north of 
Asia, where the true Alpine stock is well represented. 

Although it is often possible to recognize with absolute 
certainty these different branches of the Alpine race, and 
possibly one or two other sub-branches, it seems very doubtful 
as to their exact value in ethnology. There is hardly, at 
present, sufficient data for us to be quite certain whether 
we are dealing with local varieties whose differences are due 
to particular environmental conditions, or whether isolation 
or other causes have differentiated them for sufficiently long 
periods to give them the rank of a definite variety of the 
human race. 


C. THE YELLOW RACES 


The second great racial stock with which we meet in Asia 
I have called provisionally ‘“‘ Yellow Man.” They are usually 
called Mongolian or Mongoloid, and sometimes even are 
loosely spoken of as Mongols. This terminology is extremely 
unsatisfactory. It is really a tribal name which, owing to 
great military genius of certain of its chieftains, notably 
Ghenghis Khan and his more famous grandson Kublai Khan, 
became transferred to a wide group of peoples, including the 
Kalmucks, the Buriats, and the people to whom the great 
Khans belonged. Owing to the fact that Kublai was ruling 
over China when that country was visited by Marco Polo, 
the name was also associated closely with China. It has 
therefore come about that the Chinese over whom Kublai 
ruled are often referred to as being the most typical of the 


a ee hor 


eS eee eae +e 


THE RACES OF ASIA oT 


Mongolic people. It would appear, however, that some 
of the peoples who speak Mongolian languages, that is, 
Buriats, Mongols, and Kalmucks, are allied to the great 
races of Kastern Asia, while others are most ‘closely akin to 
the races of Europe. Owing, no doubt, to the nomadic 
habits and the warlike propensities of these steppe dwellers, 
a great deal of mixing has taken place, and the tribal names 
and language clash with physical characters, as Ripley has 
shown so clearly that they do in Europe. ._ When therefore 
we describe the Asiatic type, of which some of the Chinese are 
the typical representatives, as being Mongoloid, we are using 
a dynastic and tribal name, and are obscuring the fact that 
although many of the tribes who can historically and 
linguistically claim the proud name of Mongol are physically 
‘““Mongoloid,” on the other hand many of them have only 
a slight admixture of this blood. The name has, however, 
received a definite connotation, and it would seem difficult 
to avoid using it entirely, even if it does tend to obscure the 
issue. The whole question will become simpler when the 
actual racial characters of the Mongols are discussed. 

This second great race of Asia may truly be called Asiatic 
in contrast to the races which I have been discussing. This 
is the type which is in many ways most typical of Asia. 
It seems to have penetrated into Europe; recently, in 
examining a number of skulls in the magnificent local col- 
lection of Budapest, I was struck by the fact that so many 
crania possessed features which are usually associated with 
the Asiatic rather than the European type, and these con- 
trasted strongly with those which came from Western 
Kurope. 

As a general rule skulls belonging to the Yellow race are 
brachycephalic, often markedly so. A careful study made 
by Reicher failed to show any marked difference in the 
cranial form of the Asiatic brachycephals which he examined 
and the Dissentis skulls belonging to the Alpine type which 
he selected as his standard of comparison. Some of his 
Asiatic skulls, however, are certainly those of men belonging 
more closely to European than to the Yellow race. On the 
other hand, his Chinese skulls are certainly good representa- 
tives of the latter race. This resemblance in cranial form 
between the two great stocks is doubtless the reason why 


58 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


many observers have been inclined to class the two together 
in much the same way that, on the basis of cranial form, the 
Negro and Mediterranean man have been classed together. 
If facial form is taken as a standard of comparison, how- 
ever, there is at once a striking difference. Among most of 
the Yellow men, though by no means all, the bizygomatic 
width is not greater than in the average European, although 
those who live in the extreme north of Asia often have a 
breadth which is both absolutely and relatively great. The 
breadth of the face is therefore more apparent than real. 
This appearance is due to the very great flatness which is a 
marked character of so many Chinese faces. The malar 
bones, which form part of the upper framework of the cheeks, 
are developed in such a way as to have a great depth and 
strength. Instead of presenting a rather small slightly 
convex surface, which slopes backwards towards the zygo- 
matic arches, they are much flattened, and form a bony 
framework, which instead of transmitting the stresses of the 
jaw to the cranial vault, appears to be able to withstand 
much of them. There is therefore little need for the massing 
of bone at the glabella, which is such a characteristic feature 
of the skulls I have been discussing in the previous pages. 
The general architecture of the jaw also seems to be dif- 
ferent, and especially so from the Mediterranean type. In 
the latter, most of the power depends on the temporal muscle 
which takes its origin from the temporal fascia and fossa, 
that is the side of the cranial vault. It is inserted on the 
internal surface and the forepart of the coronoid process of 
the mandible as far as the last molar. This arrangement 
gives great power to the up-and-down movement of the jaw. 
It tends to compress the side of the cranial vault. In Yellow 
man, and in some of the White races, the principal muscle of 
mastication is the masseter. This muscle takes its origin 
from the malar process of the maxilla, and is inserted into 
the angle and lower part of the outer surface of the ramus 
of the mandible. It will be seen that from their position 
these two groups of muscle fibres are, to a large extent, 
complementary, but it will usually be found that in certain 
races one group is more developed than the other. Now it 
is precisely the region in which the masseter takes its origin 
which is most characteristically developed in Yellow man, 


PLATE II 





A MONGOL 
(Probably with Chinese blood) 


[face p, 58 





THE RACES OF ASIA 59 


The point of insertion in the lower jaw is also much developed 
in the same race, and the great development of the masseter 
muscles in the lower part of the face is easily observed in 
nearly every Chinese. In addition to the direct pull exerted 
by muscles on the points or areas of origin and insertion, 
which are, of course, mechanically equal, there are certain 
stresses set up by the working of the jaws, much in the same 
way that in addition to stresses in a blacksmith’s arms and 
body as he wields his hammer, there are very considerable 
stresses set up in the anvil every time he hits it or any object 
placed on it. 

The stress due to the temporal muscles is, as has been 
explained, more or less directly upwards. That due to the 
masseter is distributed over the face; a fact that can be 
tested experimentally on oneself, and very simply, by moving 
the jaw so as to put first greater strain on the temporal 
muscles, which can be felt contracting under the hair on 
either side of the face, and secondly, on the masseters which 
can be felt on either side of the jaw. Yellow man may be 
conveniently then described as a ‘‘ masseter type ”’ of man. 
Among certain specialized forms of Yellow man, notably 
the Eskimo, there is a combination both of the temporal 
and the masseter form of mastication to an equally high 
degree.} 

The form of the nose is equally characteristic of Yellow 
man. In the European races the nasal bones either form a 
depression at their juncture with the frontal bone, or in the 
case of the Armenoids are continued directly into the frontal 
bone in such a way as not infrequently to produce what is 
known as the Grecian profile. In both cases the nasal bones 
are arranged at a comparatively acute angle to one another. 
Normally, but by no means invariably, in our typical Yellow 
man we shall find that the depression in the nose takes place 
slightly below the nasion, that is, the juncture of the nasal 
and fronto-nasal sutures. The nasal bones are also set at a 
much more open angle to one another, giving the top of the 


1 A good example of the great development of the masseter muscles 
can be seen in the portrait—opposite page, where the subject is in no sense 
particularly muscular, showing that the particular development is a definitely 
racial and not an individual character. Owing to the fact that the temporal 
muscle lies beneath the hair, it is impossible to show its extension in an ordinary 
portrait, 


60 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


bridge of the nose a flatter appearance, not unlike that found 
in European children. 

An examination of a fairly large number of Chinese bones 
in various parts of China revealed other characters which 
appear to be associated with this stock, notably the particular 
form of the astragalus, one of the bones of the ankle-joint, 
but these differences are too technical to be discussed here. 
It would seem, however, that the differences are sufficiently 
great to warrant our allowing to Yellow man definite racial 
status on the evidence of bones alone. It must be remembered, 
however, that some of the characters show evidence that 
whatever may be the case to-day, they are ultimately varia- 
tions of the human form which can be correlated with 
environmental conditions, possibly progressive, possibly, as 
Haddon seems inclined to suggest, impressed on the human 
frame at an earlier and undifferentiated period. 

If we turn to the superficial characters, we find that Yellow 
man has many points which separate him from the stocks we 
have previously discussed. In the first place, his hair is 
practically universally straight in form and almost circular 
in section. It is comparatively sparse, but grows to a con- 
siderable length. It is black in colour. There is little hair 
on the body, and the beard, although present, is but poorly 
developed, being often limited to a few scattered hairs. 
Black hair, of course, is by no means limited to Yellow man, 
and straight-haired individuals occur also among many other 
peoples. The presence of curly hair, however, in Asia may 
be taken as a certain indication of blood which belongs to a 
different strain from Yellow man, and therefore may be of 
great convenience in identification. The hair is neither very 
fine nor very coarse, coming usually intermediately between 
the hair of some of the Mediterranean men and that of the 
Ainu, and this last is remarkable for the size of the cross- 
section of the individual hairs. 

The skin-colour varies considerably. It practically always 
has some shade of yellow which may be almost white in some 


1 An account of the skeletal characters of the Chinese will be found in 
Dr. Black’s account of human bones found in Honan and Fengtien, published 
in Paleontologica Sinica, which by Dr. Black’s kindness I read in manuscript. 
I should like to take this opportunity of thanking Dr. Black for setting at my 
disposal for examination the collections in the Department of Human Anatomy 
in the Peking Union Medical College, and for the general hospitality which 
that Institution showed me during a visit to Peking. 





THE RACES OF ASIA 61 


of the high-born ladies of Northern China. The fairest men 
are usually of a very pale saffron, only a little more yellow 
than the tint which would be described as olive and often 
lighter in tone than olive. This tint may perhaps represent 
the true colouring of the ‘‘Sons of Han,” but in a large 
collection of male Chinese it comes not very frequently. 
The complexion then varies through the various shades of 
yellow to a dusky yellow-brown, sometimes so dark that the 
yellow tinge is almost obscure, and among some of the 
tropical peoples the brown has almost a greenish hue. There 
is usually a great contrast between the parts of the body 
which are exposed to the sunlight and those which are not, 
in the latter the yellow shade is usually more apparent. The 
coolie who works exposed to extremes of weather is usually 
much darker than the upper classes who are more sheltered. 
The skin-colour is darker in the south than in the north. 
As far as my observations go, it is like so many of the char- 
acters of Yellow man, intermediate, that is to say, it is 
neither so black as the darkest of the inhabitants of Southern 
India and Ceylon, nor so light as the fairest Europeans. 

The eyes are always brown, they vary considerably in the 
degree of brownness between a dark brown that is almost 
black and a much lighter brown. The sclerotic, that is, the 
white of the eye, is not infrequently pigmented, but never 
to the high degree which is found in the Negro. 

The form of the eye presents two characteristics which are 
of great interest. First, not infrequently the eye-slit, instead 
of being horizontal, is oblique, giving the eye a slanting 
appearance, which is due to the superficial anatomy of the 
eye-slit, not to the orbit itself. This obliquity of the eyes is 
by no means universal, but it is a sufficiently marked char- 
acter to have become classical in the artistic representation 
of the human face in the Far East. Native artists also have 
been usually careful, when representing men of other races, 
to draw them with straight eyes, showing that they were 
well aware of this racial characteristic in their own people. 

The second character of the eye which is of importance 
is the so-called ‘‘ Mongolian fold.’’ This feature is due to a 
fold of skin covering the inner canthus of the eye. It may 
be variously developed. In some cases there is a large semi- 
lunar fold which covers the whole of the inner corner of the 


62 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


eye and joins the skin of the face several millimetres beneath 
the lower eyelid. In other cases the fold is reduced to a slit 
infolding which just covers the inner corner of the eye. It 
is frequently absent. 

This fold occurs occasionally in European children, and 
sometimes even in adults, but its relative frequency among 
Yellow men give it the right to be regarded as a racial 
character. It is possible that it may be considered to be 
related to the peculiar nature of the nose, which has been 
shown to resemble in some cases that of European children. 
It was formerly suggested that the nasal index could be 
considered to be a good criterion of the Yellow race, but 
subsequent research has shown that this is not the case. 

The divisions of the Yellow race are by no means so clearly 
defined as those of the stocks which we have considered 
previously. The cephalic index does not provide us with 
a satisfactory basis of classification. Among many of the 
peoples of Asia very high cephalic indices occur, but they 
can be shown practically always to be due to the influence 
of “ Alpine” man and not to belong to true Yellow man as 
we have defined him. As a general rule, we find that the 
cephalic index is in the neighbourhood of 80, with a slight 
and surprisingly small variation on either side. From this 
it might be supposed that Yellow man is but little differ- 
entiated, a statement that is probably fairly true. 

There are, however, two great subdivisions so great that 
possibly the division may be considered fundamental, namely, 
the cleavage which exists between the Yellow man, of which 
we have taken the Chinese as a typical example, and the 
division which was formerly called Red man, but which is 
now generally referred to as the Amerind race. There 
are various subdivisions of this people, which need not 
concern us here. What is, however, of importance for our 
present purpose is the theory so strongly put forward by the 
Jesup Expedition that some of the northern tribes of Siberia 
are definitely American in origin, representing probably a 
backwash of that stock, or stocks, which originally crossed 
from Asia into America. 

These peoples, who include many of the northern tribes of 
the extreme east of the Asiatic continent, differ from the 





THE RACES OF ASIA 63 


more southern examples, for whom Haddon has adopted the 
convenient term of ‘‘ Parecean”’ in various ways, none of 
which, however, appear to be of fundamental importance. 
The most noticeable feature is the very great breadth of the 
face, measured across the zygomatic arches. Although this 
great width occurs in some of the Alpines, in the Palzeasiatics 
it appears to be greater than in the Pareceans. 

The true character of these northern peoples would be 
given by a measurement of the bimalar width, rather 
than by the bizygomatic, but the extreme difficulty which 
is experienced in measuring accurately the width across 
the cheek bones, owing to the absence of a fixed anatomical 
point, has led most anthropologists to abandon this measure- 
ment. The character then which serves most clearly to 
distinguish this group of peoples is hardly shown in the 
ordinary observations which are taken in the field, but 
which appears very clearly when seen either on the living 
individual or in photographs. 

There is a second character which seems usually also to 
be associated with these northern peoples, namely, an 
extremely small stature. This hardly seems to be an in- 
variable character, and is probably to be associated with 
the hard climatic conditions to which these people and their 
ancestors have been subjected for a long period. They also 
appear usually to have a low nasal index, a fact which, if the 
theory we have previously discussed is true, would be ex- 
pected from their environment, and which would serve to 
class them as being a type of Yellow man which has specialized 
in response to Arctic conditions. 

The skin, hair, and eye colour, and the form of the hair 
and eyes do not appear to differ from those of the Pareceans. 

Although there are probably many sub-varieties in the 
vast population which inhabits China, it seems possible to 
distinguish two types. Whether again these deserve the 
name of races, in the sense which Ripley uses the word, is 
doubtful. In any case, until our knowledge of Chinese 
ethnology is greater, they serve at least as distinguishing 
marks which are convenient for identification. The terms 
which I propose to use are the Han type and the Sung type, 
suggesting, as these names do, North and South China. It 


64 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


must be remembered that I am only including those in- 
habitants of the Chinese Empire who can be considered to 
be true representatives of Yellow man. (The whole question 
is more fully discussed on pages 160 ff.) 

The northern, or Han type, is most remarkable for its 
high stature. It has been suggested that this is due to ad- 
mixture which has undoubtedly taken place with the more 
northerly tribes. This can, however, hardly be the case, as 
the northern Chinese are markedly taller than the neighbour- 
ing Mongol tribes. It is possible, however, that the great 
stature is a racial character, as some of the peoples to the 
west, who appear to be akin to the northern Chinese, also 
are reported to be of tall stature. The northern Chinese are 
slightly longer-headed than their southern neighbours, but it 
is at present uncertain how accurate the data are, and there- 
fore the matter must remain open. This greater degree of 
dolichocephaly is what would be expected with a greater 
stature. They seem also to have rather broader faces, but 
again our data is insufficient to justify our putting this 
forward as a definite racial feature. 

The southern Chinese are shorter, to a very marked 
degree, than the northern branch of the race. They are 
slightly darker, and usually have a very much higher nasal 
index. They also appear, as I have already stated, to be 
slightly more brachycephalic. As far as our data go at 
present, the stature and the nasal index form undoubtedly 
the most important points to distinguish the two. Both 
these features appear to be correlated with environment, 
but they would seem to be convenient methods of distinguish- 
ing the two great divisions of the Chinese people. It has 
often been stated in textbooks that the Chinese show a 
remarkable homogeneity of feature throughout the whole 
Empire. This, to a certain extent, undoubtedly is true. It 
seems not improbable that the Chinese have been able to 
absorb the different races which have at various times in- 
vaded China, owing to the way in which this general homo- 
geneous type has been able to adapt itself in various ways 
to its environment. We find representatives of the two 
types widely scattered over Asia, but it will usually be found 
that in the more northerly parts the northern type pre- 
dominates, whereas in the tropics the Sung or southern type 





THE RACES OF ASIA 65 


prevails. This has happened in spite of the great movements 
of peoples which have been taking place for a very long 
period. During periods of flood, famine, pestilence, or war, 
whole provinces have been devastated. They have subse- 
quently been occupied by immigrants from neighbouring 
provinces, till in the course of time a great deal of forward 
and backward movement has taken place. It will be found 
that in the south, among people who claim northern origin, 
the northern type is quite well represented. The sub- 
division into two types then must depend entirely on 
environmental conditions. In origin, apart from the border 
peoples of the periphery, there would appear to be little 
difference between the two groups. In their present appear- 
ance, however, they differ very considerably in certain 
features which have been considered of importance by 
anthropologists, and they may therefore be described as 
interesting local variations of one fundamental group. 

The next group within the great family of Yellow man 
are those who have been described by Haddon as Proto- 
Malays, the present more specialized Malays, who arose in 
Menankerbau in Sumatra in the twelfth century, being a 
developed branch of this race. These peoples, who are 
widely spread in South-eastern Asia and in the Archipelago, 
are usually round-headed, they have noses which, though 
relatively broad, are narrower than those of their Nesiot 
neighbours. Their hair and eyes do not differ from those of 
the more northerly Chinese. They are usually of short 
stature, and have a skin which, though sometimes of a dull 
dark yellow, is more often of a dusky yellowish-brown. 
They have less prominent cheek-bones than the Chinese, 
and the face is less strongly developed. They are less 
muscular for the most part than their more northern neigh- 
bours, are generally more slender of habit, and have normally 
much smaller jaws, without that great development of 
the masseter muscles which is so characteristic of the 
Chinese. 

The third great stock which is found in Asia is usually 
known as the Negrito (X. 47, App., and X. 88). These 
tribes are now found in a peripheral area, but it seems not 
improbable that at one time they occupied a much greater 
part of South-eastern Asia than they do at present. There 


F 


66 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 

are certain slight differences between the local varieties 
which are, however, not sufficient to cause any more than 
a single division to be made in the group, although the 
geographical labels, according to the places of habitat, the 
Malay Peninsula, the Philippine Islands, and the Andaman 
Islands are convenient. In Sumatra there are traces of 
Negrito blood, and a similar report has also been made in 
regard to the peoples of French Indo-China, but, except in 
the three places mentioned above, there are no longer any 
Negritos existing as groups in Asia. 

The Negritos tend to be slightly brachycephalic, a char- 
acter which is to be associated with their small stature. 
Neither of these two characters, however, serve absolutely 
to distinguish them from some of their neighbours, most of 
whom, among the more primitive tribes, are also of small 
stature. The mesocephalic index is one which is also char- 
acteristic of so many of the Yellow-skinned races and their 
congeners. The dark skin-colour, which would seem at first 
to be a good guide, is also of little service, as Martin states 
that among the primitive tribes of the interior of the Malay 
Peninsula there is, on the whole, but little difference in this 
feature. No doubt the difference between the tribes in this 
area and their undoubted kinsmen to the north in the skin- 
colour is the direct result of climatic conditions. These 
conditions have tended to cause a convergence between the 
different stocks in this as also in the nasal index, although 
in this feature there are certain differences. 

In the Philippines, however, contrary to Martin’s experience 
in the Malay Peninsula, both skin-colour and stature seem to 
mark out the Negritos from the rest of the population. The 
Negritos are both darker and also considerably shorter in 
stature. The evidence before us would then suggest that, 
although shortness is one of the characteristics of the Negritos, 
it does not serve absolutely to distinguish them from some 
of the Brown or Yellow races of South-eastern Asia, and that 
some of the Brown races may also have as dark a skin. 

The nasal index (I. 18,117) does not provide us with a 
certain criterion. In this case the ranges are of great interest. 
Taken as a general rule, it would seem as if the Negritos 
tended to have the broadest noses, but that groups of the 
Nesiot peoples had noses which were often only slightly less 


THE RACES OF ASIA 67 


broad. The Malayan peoples, who probably were the last 
immigrants into the area, have narrower noses, though the 
broadest groups often overlap with the narrowest of the 
Nesiots. If the hypothesis which is put forward earlier is 
correct, it may be suggested that the nasal index is gradually 
coming into equilibrium with the environment, but that this 
process of adaptation is a slow one, and that only those 
peoples who have for a very long time been exposed to 
extreme conditions of heat and moisture have the extreme 
index which appears to be truly associated with those con- 
ditions. 

The most marked difference between the Negritos and all 
their neighbours, and one which serves very clearly to dif- 
ferentiate them from the rest, is the form of the hair. It is 
flat and ribbon-like in section, and curls tightly over the 
head instead of falling in long tresses as does that of so many 
Asiatics, or forming ringlets like some of the primitive tribes 
of India and Ceylon. They not infrequently have beards, 
which character is a marked contrast to many of their 
neighbours. 

This latter character has been that from which they have 
obtained their name of Negritos—little Negroes. Although 
there are considerable variations in the features which are 
possessed by the different Negro groups, some of them shading 
into those possessed by other races, the particular type of 
Negro hair and the associated form of the skin appears to 
differentiate them entirely from the other stocks of mankind, 
and to associate the Negritos of Eastern Asia with the 
Negrillos of Central Africa. 

The distribution of the two groups is a puzzling one. At 
present the Negritos occupy a fringing distribution within 
the area of their characterization. It seems probable that 
formerly they occupied a much bigger area, but it would 
seem as if their original home had been either in the centre 
of their present area, or possibly on the mainland of Asia, 
whence they, like their neighbours, may have spread. They 
do not, however, exist as groups on the mainland to-day, 
although traces of them are reported by Verneau. No 
traces have been found in Borneo, but this is not a matter of 
importance as the island is an outlier. Java has failed to 
give us well-substantiated reports. It is possible, however, 


68 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


that further information is yet to be gained from that island, 
as I have not been able to trace a full monograph on the 
physical anthropology. It seems not impossible that there 
may be traces of Negritos in Sumatra, an island, which has only 
been studied in parts. West, however, of the Malay Penin- 
sula, and of the islands in the Bay of Bengal, there are no 
traces of any types which can link up the Negritos and the 
African Negroes. At present, it is true, we are almost 
entirely deficient m specimens of subfossil man from this 
area, and it is always possible that further investigation or 
chance finds may enable us to establish a definite link. At 
present, however, the gap is a serious one. If we hold, on the 
other hand, that certain of the tribes of the Pacific are of 
the same stock as the Negro, and call them by the name of 
Oceanic Negroes, it is possible that we may find a connection 
between them and the Negritos. This being so, however, it 
is extremely difficult to find a link which shall connect these 
two great groups, supposing them both to have sprung from 
the same specialized branch of humanity. It is true that 
Joyce (II.2) has lent the weight of his authority to the 
suggestion that the inhabitants of Madagascar are of the 
Oceanic Negroid stock in origin, apart from recent Malay 
immigrants. This, however, supposes a migration of these 
people from the East, a hypothesis which Joyce supports 
by the suggestion that the Oceanic Negroes are known to be 
daring seamen. It hardly is of any service in linking up the 
original two stocks. 

Against this we must remember that our knowledge of 
the early races of man outside Europe is so small that we 
may be said at present to have practically no knowledge of 
where or how the Negro stock differentiated from the rest 
of mankind. 

There is a further hypothesis which may be put forward, 
although at present there is insufficient evidence to justify 
it being considered as any more than a suggestion to be 
discarded when further information comes to hand. It has 
been said above that Martin considers that the most im- 
portant difference between the Negritos in the Malay 
Peninsula and their neighbours is the difference in the form 
of the hair. We have been inclined to consider that hair- 
form is a good criterion of race, and in many cases it certainly 





: 


THE RACES OF ASIA 69 


does seem to be so. There are, however, very considerable 
differences between the hair of the different branches of the 
Brown race and of its allies and close kinsmen, the other 
European stocks. These differences seem for the most part 
to be associated with certain climatic conditions. It seems, 
therefore, at least possible that the resemblances in hair- 
form, which we find between the Negritos and the true 
Negroes, may be due not to kinship, but rather to the in- 
fluence of a not dissimilar geographic environment. Professor 
Thomson has suggested to me that possibly the form of the 
Negro hair may be of special advantage in protecting the 
head from the excessive rays of a tropical sun The par- 
ticular construction of the skin with its greater supply of 
sweat glands, may also be due to similar reasons and causes. 
No doubt all the dwellers in the tropics have not developed 
these peculiarities, but it seems not impossible that the 
Negro types in both Africa and elsewhere are specially 
adapted to their rigorous environment, and that we must 
jook not to kinship for the cause of similar distinctive marks, 
but rather to the effect of a similar environment. 

This is all the more possible in considering the races of 
Asia, because although the Negro in Africa does appear to 
present certain very distinctive features, though not suffi- 
cient for Sergi to dissociate him from the Mediterranean 
race, yet in Asia the difference between the Negritos and their 
neighbours is nowhere distinctive, except for the character 
of the hair. 

The solution of the problem is still to seek, but it seems 
that those who would find kinship between the Negrito and 
the African Negro must search for fossil men which will 
provide a link between the two areas of characterization, 
whereas those who would support the convergence doctrine 
must trace out exactly how far the nature of human hair is 
correlated with environment. In view of the fact that we 
find that the tropics do appear to have some very definite 
effects on the human frame quite independent of race, it 
seems possible that the latter is the easiest working hypo- 
thesis to sustain. 

Summarizing, then, the races of Asia, we have first the 
Nordic sporadically in Western Asia, with possibly an out- 
lier of the same stock in the extreme east, the Ainu; secondly, 


70 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


various groups of the Brown race. The third group are the 
various sub-races akin to the Alpine race of Central Europe. 
Fourthly, we have a great group of peoples whose exact 
racial affinities have not been fully studied, namely, Yellow 
man. He may certainly be divided into two or three sub- 
types, possibly into more. Finally, we have the Negrito, with 
a small number of, for the most part, isolated tribes living 
in various localities in South-east Tropical Asia, 








CHAPTER III 
Tue ORIGIN OF THE ASIATIC RACES 


] fe the last chapter I have been considering the form 
and distribution of the races of Asia at the present 
time. The origin of these races is a matter of the greatest 
interest to all students of ethnology, and is of particular 
interest in Asia, owing to the claims which that continent 
has to being the original home of large groups of mammalian 
forms. But owing to its vast extent and also to the inac- 
cessibility of much of the continent, we have almost less 
exact information on this branch of the study of Asiatic 
peoples than of any other branch. 

By far the most important of the fossil or sub-fossil finds 
is that of Pithecanthropus erectus, which was discovered by 
Dubois at Trinil in Java in 1891. The discovery of this 
specimen did much to stimulate research into the relation- 
ship of man and the higher apes, and the conclusion reached 
at the time was that a species was represented which was 
half-way between man and the apes. Concerned as we are 
with the more modern side of the ethnology of Asia, it is 
impossible here to discuss this find in the detail which it 
deserves. The following points, however, are worthy of 
special note. Boule (III. 1) believes that Pithecanthropus is 
really a gigantic gibbon. He considers that the man-like 
characters are due to convergence and believes that his 
suggestion is the best way to account for the intermediate 
character of the calvarium, the straight femur and the nature 
of the teeth which have simian roots and human crowns, 
that is to say, that they are broad rather than long. Un- 
fortunately, the finds so far published are limited to these 
three parts of the skeleton, and repeated searches have failed 
to discover any more remains which might throw further 
light on the question. 

Special attention may be drawn to the following details 


71 


72 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


The capacity of the calvaria, as far as it can be estimated, 
may be said to be of an intermediate character between man 
and the apes. Sir Arthur Keith believes that the fronto- 
malar region is simian rather than human. The occipital 
region is intermediate, but there is, generally speaking, a 
resemblance to that of the gibbons and the chimpanzees. 
Elliot Smith considers the endo-cranial cast to be human in 
character, but the frontal region is reduced, and here too 
the animal is probably intermediate in type. 

There are abundant traces to prove that paleolithiec man 
inhabited the continent of Asia. As long ago as 1864 Lartet 
reported that paleoliths were to be found in Syria. Since 
that time numerous further discoveries have been made in 
Western Asia, especially in Syria and Palestine. They have 
frequently been found in conjunction with a pleistocene 
fauna, which confirms the antiquity of the deposits. The 
forms of the implements coincides with those of Europe. 
Boule (III. 1, 354) reports that Chellean, Acheulean, Mouste- 
rian, Aurignacian, and even Magdalenian types occur. The 
glaciation, at the time when man was making these imple- 
ments, seems to have still extended to the higher mountain 
slopes and plateaux, as finds are very rare in Asia Minor 
and Persia. The plains, however, contain both paleolithic 
and neolithic deposits, and at Anau in Turkestan, Pumpelly 
(III. 2) has excavated a site which was inhabited continuously 
over a very long period from neolithic times onwards. 

Numerous paleolithic deposits have been found in India 
from the Punjaub to Madras. They are associated with an 
ancient fauna, and the archeological problem in India is 
extremely similar to that of Western Europe. In Northern 
Asia it is also clear that man in a paleeolithic stage of cul- 
ture at one time inhabited the valley of the Yenesei, where 
Russian archeologists have reported the presence of artefacts 
associated with the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, and 
the reindeer. The glaciation, however, appears to have been 
less extensive than in Europe, the most southerly paleolithic 
station being at Krasnoiarsk (III. 8 and III. 4). 

The neolithic remains from the Irkutsk district are of 
interest because they have been covered with red ochre, 
as are some of the paleolithic skeletons. No special sig- 


ORIGIN OF THE ASIATIC RACES 73 


nificance, however, can be attached at present to this curious 
coincidence. 

The kitchen middens in Japan and other prehistoric 
remains in Ko, the neighbouring mainland, throw no light 
on our problem, because where it has been possible to link 
them up with known facts, they seem to have been made 
by people akin to the modern inhabitants of those areas. A 
discussion on their significance will be found in the chapter 
dealing with those peoples. 

This brief résumé will show then that, at present, we have 
evidence of the presence of early man in Western, Northern, 
and Southern Asia. The cultural evidence from the Far 
Kast is at present either of doubtful value, or lacking. When 
we remember how very recent are most of the discoveries 
in Europe, and how prehistoric archeology has been re- 
written, even in the last twenty or less years, the doubtful 
nature of negative evidence is at once apparent. 

Various ancient finds have been reported from the loess 
and elsewhere in China. The most important are described 
by Teilhard (III. 6) from the great Ordos bend of the Yellow 
River. Five different localities are said to contain palo- 
lithic remains. These are Ning Hsia, in Northern Kansu, 
where the types are said to be Mousterian. Secondly, at Sjara 
Osso Gol, a fluviatile deposit, contemporary with the loess, 
is said to have contained similar implements, associated with 
forms which were similar to the Elephas primigenius and 
Rhinoceros tichorhinus of Europe. Yu féng chiao deposits 
contained instruments which may have been of older date. 
King Yang is the fourth site mentioned. Further types 
were found at Shi tsui tze, in loess gravels, and in the desert 
at San tao Ho, which place is, however, on the Hwang Ho, 
the explorers summarize their finds by describing the area 
as a long band of paleolithic deposits, running from San tao 
Ho to King Yang, a distance of about 900 kilometres. 

This find is of the greatest importance, but I have not 
been able to find a complete account of their journey, and it 
is hardly possible to accept their statements without a good 
deal of reserve. The exact condition of the graviers du loess 
as they describe them is extremely uncertain, and the action 
of the Hwang Ho is so capricious that except after long and 
careful study it is not always possible to ascertain certainly 


74 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


the age of the fluviatile deposits. To establish the definite 
geological position of paleolithic implements in so big a 
band of country as the great Ordos bend is hardly possible 
without many years of careful study. It is probable, and 
to be hoped that their finds are genuine. 

I have had the opportunity, through the courtesy of Dr. 
Anderson and others, of examining a large number of so- 
called paleolithic implements in China. They could be 
described, typologically, not infrequently by the various 
names which are used in Europe. A careful examination, 
however, revealed that this description would be quite false. 
Those which could be dated, however, although often as- 
sociated with extinct animals, clearly belonged to the Chal- 
colithic Period of China, whose pottery is clearly of the same 
type as that from Anau, and which possibly survived, at 
least in Fengtien, to as late as 1500 B.c. Some whose 
archeological position was uncertain were clearly what 
may be described as neolithic wasters, although it must be 
clearly understood that at present we have no data on the 
Neolithic Period in China, but only of the Chalcolithic. 
Others were uncertain both as to form and their horizon. In 
spite, therefore, of these isolated finds from the Ordos bend, 
there is no definite evidence of palolithic man in China. 
The other finds which have been made makes the reported 
genuine implements seem very doubtful, especially since we 
know that early forms survived until what must be described 
as, geologically at least, a very recent period (III. 7; III. 8; 
IIT. 9). 

The finds which are alleged to have been made in the 
south and in Indo-China are of an equally doubtful character. 
If we summarize the evidence it must be admitted that, 
although Boule has lent the great weight of his authority 
to the Siberian finds, and is apparently inclined even to 
accept the more than doubtful ones from Kansu, we still 
know nothing of early man north of the great uplift, and 
the reported finds make the problem if anything more 
difficult. 

When evidence of man’s handiwork is so doubtful, it is 
natural that his bones are likely to be even more rare. Apart 
from Pithecanthropus, two definite reports have been made 
of early man in Asia. 


ORIGIN OF THE ASIATIC RACES 75 


The first is said to be possibly of Aurignacean date. It 
was found by Zumoffen in a cave at Antelias in Pheenicia. 
No complete morphological report appears to have been 
published (III. 10). 

The second is a sacrum, described by Matsumoto in 1915 
(III.11). The bone came from an ancient deposit in Honan. 
On the ground of its shape and curvature Matsumoto believes 
it to be Neanderthaloid. Considering the variations which 
occur in sacra, and judging from the published figures, it 
would seem exceedingly hazardous, even were its ancient 
date definitely established, to assert on morphological 
grounds that this sacrum belonged to a representative of 
Neanderthal man, and until Dr. Black’s report is published 
we cannot say what was the exact form of early man in 
Honan during the Chalcolithic Period. Apart then from 
geologic evidence, the association is doubtful. The geologic 
evidence is, however, also extremely doubtful. Matsumoto 
publishes no data as to the way in which the finds were 
made, but only states how they came into his hands. He 
dates the sacrum by describing it as similar in condition and 
fossilization to the remains of what he has decided is Hlephas 
primigenius, or a near relation. The remains of the elephant 
were, however, limited to a vertebra, which the author 
identifies, somewhat hesitatingly, as the ninth. It is de- 
scribed as very lightly fossilized. The evidence for the age 
of the sacrum is, therefore, doubtful in the extreme and can, 
until we have further bones from Honan in a definite stratum, 
be safely disregarded. 

Our evidence, therefore, for early man in Asia becomes 
extremely meagre. Over the greater part of it we have at 
present nothing certain. Most of that part is little known, 
some is unknown. The negative evidence then counts for 
nothing. Many authors have, however, in spite of this 
doubtful position, confidently affirmed that man originated 
in Asia. Some schools of thought, especially Mathew (I. 28, 
171), have suggested the central plateau. There is little 
evidence to confirm this attractive hypothesis beyond the 
fact that as the central plateau is remote and in a central 
position in Asia, the exploration of it is not likely to proceed 
rapidly. If early remains are found there, luck will favour 
the finders, and the finds will fit in with many enticing 


76 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


theories, but at present not even implements have rewarded 
the searchers in that region. 

The Siwalik fossiliferous beds have suggested to others 
that the origin of man must be sought in this region. There 
does appear to have been what Boule describes as an extreme 
movement of life in that region towards the end of the Miocene 
and the beginning of the Pliocene, and the development of 
the higher primates is perhaps more marked than the other 
groups. But the evidence is limited to this general inference 
at present. The conclusions which can be drawn from the 
study of mammalian fauna cannot, however, always be ap- 
plied successfully to man, and this hypothesis also remains an 
attractive and purely academic theory without any evidence 
to support it at present. The chance turning of a sod of 
earth may show that what has been written above is correct, 
or may entirely confound it, but at present that sod of earth 
has not yet been turned. 

Wherever man originated, then, there is no reason par- 
ticularly to suppose that he originated in any particular 
place.1 No very primitive remains have been discovered in 
America, and it seems unlikely that there will be. Opinions 
are divided as to Asia, more perhaps incline towards it than 
against, but such theories can only be wild conjecture based 
on facts, which are not normally of value in dealing with 
mankind, though possibly they may be of value in dealing 
with him in a very rudimentary stage. The evidence at 
present throws most doubt on his antiquity in the north 
and favours his antiquity in the south. But all the evidence 
is such that it must date from a period long after man first 
became man, for he had already learnt to shape elaborate 
implements, and the evidence from Europe suggests that 
this relatively advanced stage of culture was only reached 
after a long apprenticeship. The relation of Asia to the 
modern races of man is also a hazardous territory and not 
less full of pitfalls than that we have been discussing, but 
there is more evidence. In Europe we have remains of man 
earlier geologically in every probability than anything from 
Asia at present found. This does not argue that Europe was 


1 Giuffrida-Ruggeri (IIT. 12 and IIT. 13) believes that man originated from 
a unique phylum, but that there were three cradles, not necessarily far apart, 
for the White, Yellow, and Black races, 


ORIGIN OF THE ASIATIC RACKS fH 


necessarily the cradle of man, but it gives us a starting-point 
from which to work. Further, we have evidence of the 
movements of later man in Europe, and at least to a limited 
degree we can trace the history of the three great races of 
Europe, as they were described by the older anthropologists. 

The situation is very clearly described by Boule. It is 
evident that the present centre of distribution of the Nordic 
race is Scandinavia; during paleolithic times Sweden was 
covered with ice and they must necessarily have developed 
elsewhere in an ice-free region. It seems probable on pale- 
ontogical grounds that this ice-free region is to be found in 
Russia, central, south, and east, and not impossibly in the 
Trans-Ural region. Here again we have no true evidence. 
Giuffrida-Ruggeri (III. 14), and a somewhat similar view is 
taken by Fleure (II. 16), suggested that the Nordics are a 
branch of Mediterranean man. This is by no means impos- 
sible; there is, however, no evidence to confirm this hypo- 
thesis, which has not met with general acceptance. Boule 
suggests that Nordics, or Pre-Nordies, existed in Magdalenian 
times. 

It seems on the whole probable that the Nordics inclined 
to Europe and not to Asia. We do not know at present. 
We have suggestions, however, that in times which were 
sufficiently remote to antedate the modern inhabitants, there 
were spread over the northern steppe land forest and tundra 
of the Eurasiatic continent a people who differed very con- 
siderably from the modern inhabitants of those regions. We 
still have survivors of these long-heads belonging to the 
north at the two ends of the continent, the Nordics in Europe, 
the Ainu, and probably some of the Turkoman. peoples in 
Asia. They differ profoundly from one another, but it is 
probable that they belong ultimately to the same stock. 
Unfortunately our methods of describing skulls differ so much 
that from the published accounts it is often difficult to be 
certain of the characters of some of the skulls; this is par- 
ticularly to be regretted in the case of the early finds from 
Northern Siberia. It is clear that we have to do with a long- 
headed race, possibly more than one race, who at one period 
probably had a very wide distribution. Where their origin 
was it is impossible to say. We are by no means sure that 
they all are the same people. An examination of Ainu skulls 


78 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


and other prehistoric skulls from Japan, possibly of a remote 
age, possibly more recently, suggested to me that the kinship 
between the Nordics and the Ainu was by no means so 
remote as has often been suggested. The difference of pig- 
ment was great, but, as has already been seen, pigment is not 
a reliable guide to race. 

It seems probable, then, that we had a centre of distribution, 
either in Eastern Europe or in Northern Asia, where the ice 
cap does not seem to have stretched so far to the south. 
The people dispersed from this centre in two directions and 
ultimately became in one case the tall, fair people of Northern 
Europe, and in the other the stocky, curly-haired Ainu 
with their brunet colouring and brown or auburn eyes. 

It may even be that the Ainu are the relics, but little 
specialized of this early race. Their general characters are 
such, as we shall see in greater detail, as those of a primitive 
race, while it is not possible to avoid the suggestion, especially 
if one has lived among them, that their kinship with the 
peoples of Europe must always be borne in mind. 

This suggestion would not necessarily shift the original 
cradle of the Nordic race further to the east than Boule 
suggests, especially since we have evidence of Proto-Nordic 
man on the Turkoman steppes. We must remember that 
to suggest kinship is by no means to affirm any particular 
home. Kinship means a common stock, but where that 
common stock originated is at present entirely uncertain, 
and I can only put forward the very tentative suggestion of 
common kinship while confessing that such kinship is as yet 
entirely unproven, and that even were it proved it would do 
nothing more than suggest what has been put forward on 
other grounds, namely, that Nordic man originated in the 
northern part of the Eurasiatic continent at a comparatively 
remote period, and that he migrated thence for some entirely 
unknown reason. It is to be noted that his migrations still 
continue, and at present he has succeeded in establishing, if 
not his pure type, at least strains with a fair proportion of his 
blood over most of the temperate zones. 

In neolithic times it seems extremely probable that this 
migration was very active. That he or a kindred race sent 
further waves into the Far East is probable but by no means 
certain, and there is at present little direct evidence to sup- 


ORIGIN OF THE ASIATIC RACES 79 


port it. It is quite sure that at this time he overran the 
Scandinavian Peninsula, and so firmly established himself 
there as to give, as Boule says, the illusion that this was the 
place from which he originally sprung. 

The Mediterranean race presents a different problem. 
While I have tried to suggest that the Nordics and those who 
resemble them, whether kinsmen or not, are at least special- 
ized to live in northern conditions and on the whole have 
never succeeded in adapting themselves to southern con- 
ditions, it is clear that that branch of mankind which we call 
Mediterranean is a child of the south. It is possible that they 
may be two closely allied branches of the same race, the one 
adopted to tropical or sub-tropical conditions, the other to 
the north. We have no evidence to support or combat this 
theory. It has been shown, however, that while the association 
of the northern long-heads with one another is problematical, 
there are many reasons which suggest that the Mediterranean 
or Brown race has a wide distribution and probably a number 
of sub-races. These are distributed from the Dutch Indies 
to the Pillars of Hercules. They are found in Egypt in the 
comparatively early period which we call pre-dynastic, and 
they are represented in the earliest tombs which have so 
far been carefully examined in Mesopotamia. But this is 
all modern history. It carries us but back to yesterday in 
our search for origins. Some of the much earlier skulls from 
Europe apparently belong to this type. All we can say is 
that from remote times, as it would appear, almost since man 
in his modern and non-Neanderthaloid form was living on 
the earth, we find this type scattered along the western and 
southern seaboard of the great continent whose ethnological 
history we are considering. Where his cradle was we have 
no evidence to show us. As there probably were other races 
in occupation of the earth at the time that he was beginning, 
it seems not improbable that his birthplace was somewhere 
within the area of his present distribution, at a period 
sufficiently remote for him to become acclimatized to different 
conditions. At present it is impossible to be more precise. 

One or two suggestions have been made about the origin of 
Mediterranean man which suggest a rather different origin 
from that which I have given above. Giuffrida-Ruggeri 
(I1J. 14), for instance, thinks that the race was produced 


80 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


by a cross between Cromagnon man and a type which he 
calls Proto-Ethiopic. The disadvantage of this theory is that 
we have very little evidence as to the true nature of the 
former type, and none in regard to the latter. In any case, 
this would not explain the present distribution of the Brown 
races, nor how they come to present such remarkable differ- 
ences in pigmentation while preserving the same main 
features. 

The great group of brachycephals, which I have divided 
into Alpine, Dinaric, and Armenoid, but which in this chapter 
I will refer to as Alpine for lack of a term which shall include 
the three branches, is generally admitted to have taken its 
origin in Asia. The precise relationship of this stock to Yellow 
man is one of the most important considerations in dealing 
with its origin. Some authors would hardly distinguish 
between the two, making them closely related. Others, again, 
seem to see in them closely related stocks, the Alpine being an 
offshoot from the Yellow. Boule suggests that the migration 
westwards probably began at the end of the glacial period, 
and that the Alpines gradually lost their Mongoloid characters 
as they advanced westwards. How this process took place 
he does not explain. 

It seems probable that the early advances of Alpine man 
were not so much migrations as a series of infiltrations into 
other populations. In the Bronze Age, however, they 
certainly made a great influx into Western Europe (III. 15), 
but they had previously been filtering into the Near East 
at a time which can be definitely dated, approximately the 
beginning of the Dynastic Period in Egypt (II. 17, 114). 
They present in many ways a different problem from that 
which we have been discussing because, at least in Western 
Asia and in Europe, they are certainly not the earliest 
representatives of modern man, although as I shall show 
elsewhere they have been claimed as the earliest inhabitants 
of Asia Minor, a region which was not inhabited till neolithic 
times, possibly quite late therefore in man’s history. Although 
to-day we find Alpine man widely distributed in Asia, on the 
whole where he appears in a fringing position it would seem 
as though his arrival was late. In Europe he is essentially 
the child of the mountains. That he originated in Asia seems 
almost the only conclusion that can be drawn from the evidence 


ORIGIN OF THE ASIATIC RACES 81 


that we have at present. His relationship to Yellow man is 
not at present clearly understood in spite of many precise 
statements to the contrary. If we accept the supreme value 
of the cephalic index, and many anthropologists are very 
doubtful about its value, then we shall probably see a like- 
ness. If not, then it is clear that there is no reason to suggest 
the closer linkage of Yellow man with Alpine than with the 
other races. 

We have as yet no knowledge of the origin of Yellow man. 
The centre of Asia is a country which has not as yet been fully 
explored, and at present the earliest remains which have been 
discovered of this type do not appear to be of any very great 
antiquity. As has been explained above, we do not even know 
whether Alpine man is related in his origin to Yellow man. 
One point in regard to the early form of Yellow man which 
needs consideration here is his relation to the inhabitants of 
the New World. 

The origin of the Amerind has been the cause of much 
discussion. Many anthropologists, notably Hrdlicka (III. 
16 and 17), believe that there is not in the Americas any 
trace of early man. MHrdlicka’s position seems to be that 
in most cases the evidence of antiquity breaks down, but that 
where it does seem that the geological evidence is difficult to 
assail, the character of the human remains is such that for 
the most part they do not differ from modern Indians, and 
therefore they are of no great antiquity (III. 18, 19, and 20). 
There are, it is true, one or two cases which seem at first sight 
not to fall within either of these two categories; they can, 
however, most of them be explained when the evidence is 
fully considered. 

There is, however, no reason why the early remains of man 
in America should not be of some antiquity and at the same 
time bear considerable resemblance to the modern Indian. 
In North-eastern Asia to-day, as we shall see in a later chapter, 
there are peoples who bear a close resemblance to the modern 
Amerinds. This resemblance can probably be best explained 
by supposing that they had a common ancestor who did not 
differ very greatly from his modern descendants. It is true 
that the Amerinds to-day present certain differences, of head- 
form, colour, stature, and so on. These resemblances, how- 
ever, are such that Hrdlicka believes that they may be 


G 


82 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


considered as belonging to the same race, while others suppose 
that there are several racially distinct types in America. In 
any case, it would seem to be generally admitted at present 
that the resemblances between the Amerind and the Yellow 
races are such that they must belong to the same racial stock. 
There is no evidence which inclines one to believe that they 
originated in America. It is therefore probable that they 
originated in Asia. It does, however, seem probable that 
there have been several movements of peoples in both 
directions in the neighbourhood of the Behring Strait. Some 
of the present people in Asia may therefore owe their origin 
to the American continent, but only as a secondary racial 
cradle. 

The Asiatic Eskimo are not numerous in number, but 
considerable attention has been drawn to this interesting 
people. It would seem, as we shall show later, that the Asiatic 
Eskimo are more closely related to their neighbours, who are 
not Eskimo, than to the Eskimo of North America. It seems 
that in any case we must associate the Eskimo people with 
the Yellow race, while at the same time distinguishing them 
from the Amerind. Possibly the differentiation may have 
taken place at a comparatively remote period, but here again 
we have no evidence on which to base any theories. The 
cranium from Chancelade has been considered by many ob- 
servers, from Testut (III. 21), who originally described it, to 
Professor Sollas (III. 22), to be Eskimoid. Are we, therefore, 
to find not in Asia but in Europe the original ancestors of 
the inhabitants of the extreme north-east of the Asiatic 
continent ? 

Such a conclusion would be hazardous in the extreme. 
In the first place, but little reliance can be placed on the 
evidence of a single cranium. Secondly, we have at present 
no means of judging whether the characters, which do seem 
at first sight to resemble the characters of the Eskimo, are 
really to be considered as such. The form of the nose has 
been considered by some to be important evidence as proving 
the relationship with the Eskimo. The narrowness which 
appears in both the Chancelade specimen and in most Eskimo 
skulls is certainly remarkable. It must be remembered, how- 
ever, that both were subjected to extremely cold conditions, 
and the narrowness of the nose may be a convergence, not 


ORIGIN OF THE ASIATIC RACES 83 


a matter of relationship. The form of the cranium, with its 
marked keeling when viewed from the front (in norma 
facialis), may also be accounted for in thesame way. Professor 
Thomson has shown good reasons for supposing that the 
keeling in the Eskimo is not a racial character, but is due to 
the use which these people make of their masticatory appara- 
tus. Here, again, we have no certain evidence and can only 
record the observed facts. 

The conclusion warranted by our present evidence would 
be that the various peoples who can be grouped together as 
members of the Yellow race all probably originated in Asia, 
and it would appear in its northern part. The suggestions of 
Mongoloid man in Europe in paleolithic times have not as 
yet been substantiated. 

We know nothing at present about the origin of the 
Negritos, and cannot say whether they came from Africa, 
which would seem unlikely, or whether, which is more prob- 
able, that they are Asiatic in origin. There is not at present 
any definite evidence, as far as I am aware, which would claim 
our belief that the Negro originated in Asia. Any theories 
that may be put forward on physical grounds must remain at 
present pure conjectures. 

The outcome of this chapter, then, is for the most part 
purely negative. We cannot speak for lack of evidence of 
ultimate origins. It seems probable that the Yellow races, 
and at least one branch of the White races, have had their 
centre of dispersion in Asia, but in what locality it is impossible 
at present to specify. More generally, however, it seems not 
improbable that the earliest cradle of mankind was ‘‘ some- 
where in Asia.” 


CHAPTER IV 
WESTERN ASIA 


A. THE PEOPLES OF THE NEAR EAST 


dee the previous chapters I have been considering in broad 

outline the general conditions to which man is sub- 
jected in Asia, and the groups into which the inhabitants of 
that area have been generally divided. In the chapters which 
follow I shall attempt to discuss in detail the general ethnology 
of the various parts of Asia. In spite of its disadvantages I 
have found it most convenient to follow the example of most 
of my predecessors, and to adopt the geographic method of 
grouping. This method has the obvious advantage that the 
greater part of the works referred to deal with particular 
small areas. It also makes the task of the reader simpler 
if he wishes to consult an atlas, as he will not be continually 
turning over pages. Such a division is, however, artificial 
when considered from the point of view of the classifica- 
tion of mankind, although geographical and other boundaries 
do seem to have played a definite part in the moulding of 
peoples. 

The method which I have pursued is first to discuss as 
briefly as possible the geographical conditions in each area 
which seem to be of importance to the student of ethnology, 
and then to consider the affinities of the people themselves. 
I have added a number of references to other parts of the book 
from time to time in order to enable the reader to find a fuller 
discussion of some point which may be of equal importance in 
the ethnology of more than one area. The more general 
books have not been referred to more than once in the 
bibliography, but here again I have tried, by a system of 
cross references, to enable the student who may be particularly 
interested in one country to find papers which deal with the 
area in which he is interested, but which are more logically 
placed in the bibliography of another area. 

84 


WESTERN ASIA 85 


The country which forms the subject of the present chapter 
includes roughly what is generally known as the ‘‘ Near East ”’ 
and the “‘ Middle East,” and part of South-East Russia. Much 
of it was formerly included in the old Turkish Empire, now 
divided under various groupings. As the older divisions are 
more familiar it may be convenient to adopt them; they 
include, Anatolia, Cyprus, Mesopotamia, Syria, Arabia, all 
of which formed part of the Turkey in Asia, although Cyprus 
had been administered by Great Britain since 1878. Armenia 
now forms a separate province and Irak is included in 
Mesopotamia. Iran may be said to include Persia and 
Afghanistan. Finally, the northern part of this area is at 
present divided into the Turkoman and Uzbeg Republics. 

The country has very diverse features, and does not form 
in any sense a unit, but it possesses certain ethnological 
features in common which are not shared by other parts of 
the Asiatic continent. 

In this region and in this region only is there direct 
communication with two continents, and here the ethno- 
logical problem cannot be separated from that of Europe 
on the one hand, and that of Africa on the other. It 
would appear, however, that here as elsewhere Asia has 
had a greater influence on its neighbours than the other 
countries have had on Asia. The mountain ranges in general 
terms run parallel to the north and the south coasts of Ana- 
tolia. They then turn and run in two directions, one series 
parallel to the Syrian coast and the other east-.of the valley 
of the great rivers and finally parallel to the Persian Gulf. 
The Elburz Mountains are situated to the south of the Caspian 
Sea, and after curving to the south-east finally join the great 
massif of Afghanistan. The mountain ranges of Persia are 
separated from Afghanistan, first, by the depression of the 
Lut desert, and then after crossing a range which runs north- 
west and south-east by the desert of Seistan. 

Arabia forms a province by itself, the highest portions, with 
one exception, lying on the west and forming a series of long- 
drawn-out steps to the Persian Gulf. 

Owing to the diversity of the surface features there are 
considerable differences in climate. Except for the south- 
west corner of Arabia and the region between the Black Sea 
and the Caspian, the average rainfall in July is everywhere 


86 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


below one inch. In January the Mediterranean coastal] region 
receives between four and eight inches. Apart from this 
coastal region and an area of small rainfall in Central-Western 
Anatolia, the country north-west of a line drawn from Suez 
to the south-east corner of the Caspian has an average 
rainfall of between two and four inches. The Mesopotamian 
region, and the Persian Gulf and the country lying south 
of the Caspian, between one and two inches, and the rest 
of the Arabian peninsula and the deserts of Iran less than 
an inch. 

The January isothermal lines run roughly east and west. 
Anatolia and the region to the east is between the 40-50 
degrees, Syria 10 degrees higher and Western and Southern 
Arabia between 70 degrees and 80 degrees. In July the central 
region, including the tableland of Arabia, the Mesopotamian 
plain, Kurdistan, and the Plateau of Iran have a temperature 
over the 90 degrees isotherm, and actually include some of 
the hottest inhabited towns of the earth. The extent of 
mountainous regions, of course, varies these generalizations 
to a large extent, and in many parts the winters are more 
extreme on the uplands than an enumeration of the isotherms 
would indicate. 

The vegetation forms, perhaps, a better guide to the con- 
ditions under which man lives than a mere enumeration of 
climatic conditions. Corresponding to the main mountain 
chains there are large areas of Alpine vegetation; those 
proportionately largest are found in Armenia, but the longest 
stretches extend from Tabriz to Meshed, and from north of 
Kashan to south of Kerman. 

There is an area of steppe between Angora and Konia, and 
south-west of Erzeroum. Otherwise the greater part of 
Anatolia consists either of cultivated land, or land which is 
capable of cultivation. The same is true of the Syrian coast 
andthe Yemen. There is a long stretch of this country south- 
west, almost from Lake Van in Kurdistan. The edge of the 
mountain region south of the Caspian and the lower part of 
Mesopotamia is similar and there are areas of oasis in Syria, 
some of them of large extent. Much of Persia and the Tigris 
region is steppe, and elsewhere the country is either semi- 
desert or passes, in the Nefud and Dahna in Seistan and else- 
where in Iran, into true desert, 


WESTERN ASIA 87 


It will be seen from this that most of the movements must 
have been north-west or south-east, except along the Syrian 
coast. There are, however, reasons for believing that con- 
siderable changes may have taken place in this region and 
that roads may have become in some cases less hospitable 
than they were formerly, and regions once inhabited have 
now become desert. Most of the regions which seem to 
have changed appear to have been of an oasis type of culture, 
and this type is singularly sensitive to its environment ; 
when once control is relaxed it is liable to change rapidly 
and considerably even without any general desiccation of 
the area. 

The countries in the west which have been most closely 
connected ethnologically with this area are important. The 
Mediterranean offers a chain of islands which can be reached 
even by the most timid mariner. Cyprus and the high 
mountains near the Anatolian coast are always in sight of 
one another, and though the Lebanon is only visible at 
dawn from the island, a short distance at sea will make 
both lands visible to the mariner. Further to the west the 
chain of islands is even more continuous. It has happened, 
therefore, that owing to the biological law that surrounding 
areas are populated from large central areas, there has been 
a pressure of peoples from the Asiatic continent to the west. 
The round-headed peoples from the east have, within a period 
which we trace fairly exactly, that is since the end of the less 
well-known Mesolithic period and the earlier Neolithic Period, 
profoundly modified the population of Malta. This modi- 
fication is so great that we may almost say that a different 
race occupies the island to-day from that which occupied it 
in chalcolithic times. They altered the population of Crete, 
in all probability during the Minoan Period. Of the other 
border lands at present we have little evidence to guide us, 
but there are suggestions that they have at least affected the 
population. In all this Mediterranean area there are indica- 
tions that the aboriginal population was akin to the present 
Mediterranean race. The invaders from Asia changed the 
population at various times from the Neolithic Period 
onwards. 

It would seem to be reasonable to ask the question whether 
the Mediterranean area made any return to the Asiatic. At 


88 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


present this question is difficult to answer. I have shown 
how the Mediterranean race spreads over much of Western 
Asia. On the other hand, it hardly seems probable that the 
origin of the Mediterranean race was in the Mediterranean 
region. Sergi and others believe that the Mediterranean race 
is akin to the Negro. There are, it is true, certain resem- 
blances, but generally the Negro is so different that this 
connection can hardly be admitted. 

Probably, then, the western road out of Asia has been used 
in one direction only by migrating peoples. On the outskirts 
it is true that there appear to have been many and various 
movements of peoples. The variations in some parts of 
Western Anatolia are so great that there must have been 
considerable admixture. The ancient historians also suggest 
that there were migrations in both directions. These 
later movements, however, appear to be of slight weight 
beside the greater racial trend which has been from east to 
west. 

Undoubtedly, there has been at various times a close 
connection between Asia and Egypt. This country is a 
narrow trough, and one of the most convenient entrances to 
this trough is near its mouth. There is every probability 
that the background of the present and the former popula- 
tion of Egypt, Elliot Smith’s Proto-Egyptians, have been 
in the country for a very long period. Within historic times, 
however, this type was overlaid by an invader of alien type 
who is closely akin to the Armenoid race. He appears 
earlier in the Delta than elsewhere, and there is every reason 
to believe that this invasion of a racial type into Egypt is 
exactly similar to the invasion of the same racial type into 
the Mediterranean islands, although they came earlier into 
Kgypt. 

Communications on the east are more difficult. It is one 
thing to travel in a caravan across a difficult country and 
quite another to migrate in sufficiently large numbers to 
change the type of the population. It is true that the pilgrims 
to Mecca are sufficiently numerous almost to be classed as a 
racial migration, but it seems as though the types of popu- 
lations were established long before the Holy Cities were 
thronged by pious devotees. 

The natural ways by which man can penetrate the land 


WESTERN ASIA 89 


of Iran from the east are restricted. There is a way to the 
north and north-east. To-day there is a caravan road which 
leads from Meshed westwards to Teheran, south of the 
Elburz Mountains, and there divides, part of the road going 
to the south, where it divides again and serves Persia on the 
east and Mesopotamia on the west. The more northerly road 
runs west from Teheran to Anatolia, through Azerbaijan. 
It seems probable that it was through the country traversed 
by this road between the Turkoman desert and the desert 
regions of Khorassan that the round-heads came into Western 
Asia. There runs a road from Meshed to Kerman, skirting 
the mountains to the south of the former place, but it is 
unlikely that this is a route which was followed by migrating 
peoples. Indeed, it is difficult to account for the present 
distribution of the short-heads in this part of the world under 
existing geographical conditions. On the whole the great 
mountain barrier seems to divide the two groups of peoples 
which mingle in places especially, as we shall see, in the area 
we are discussing. They must at one time have passed right 
across Asia, but under what circumstances can hardly be 
determined at present. If they took the more northerly 
route, as seems to-day the most likely, we should have 
expected to find more traces of them than we do in the 
region north of the Hindu Kush. On the other hand, it is 
by no means impossible that the period during which the 
Mediterranean race was distributing itself is so remote 
and so close to the age of extreme glaciation that the 
communications, even in Seistan, were open for man to 
pass without the elaborate organization and specialization 
which are necessitated by desert travel. 

The whole of this area is concerned with the rise 
and gradual development of the culture on which our 
Western civilization is based. It is of little concern for 
our present purpose whether the original mother of our arts 
was the Nile valley or the valley of the twin rivers, for, as 
we shall see, their population was fundamentally not dif- 
ferent in origin, though the Sumerians were of a different 
stock. In any case we have the interesting problem to 
consider as to whether the physical characters of the in- 
habitants of this area were of the greatest importance in 
making the beginnings of this civilization possible, or whether 


90 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


geographical or other factors were in the main responsible. 
It is of interest to note that, on the whole, the Greeks were 
of the same stock, but that probably the mixture, which 
made the population of the Near East such a curious blend, 
took place in Greece later than in the more eastern countries. 
We must also remember that Egypt had advanced far in her 
arts before the Armenoid peoples entered into her popula- 
tion, and the Mesopotamian people also contained a large 
blend of the Mediterranean race. We are, therefore, open 
to believe, if we consider that racial stock is an important 
element in contributing to the success of nations, either that 
the Mediterranean stock was the most important or alter- 
natively the Armenoid, or finally a mixture of the two. 
It has even been further suggested that there was a Nordic 
strain at least among the ruling classes. At present we have 
not sufficient evidence on which to base any theories. It is, 
however, of interest to call attention to the early racial 
stocks of the peoples to whom Europe is so profoundly 
indebted for the beginnings of her culture, and it is the more 
important because some authorities have advanced very 
strongly the view that the potentialities of quite other races 
are really greater than these. 

With such general considerations before us we may con- 
sider the inhabitants of the Near East in greater detail, 
always remembering that possibly the geographical con- 
ditions to-day may not be quite the same as when man first 
inhabited the area, and that the region has always been one 
of considerable turmoil; but that the populations to-day 
are not very different from those in ancient times of whom 
unfortunately we have so few relics. 

Although for descriptive purposes it is convenient to 
consider the races which inhabit it as two groups, the in- 
habitants of Mediterranean Asia and the inhabitants of 
Tranian Asia, it must be remembered that on the whole the 
type of population is the same. There are two main stocks, 
Mediterranean man and Armenoid man; sometimes they are 
found in a pure state, more often they are mixed. The 
earlier inhabitants of this area have been found by different 
authors in one or other of these two types. 

The most distinguished writer on this subject in recent 
years is von Luschan, In a paper published many years ago 


WESTERN ASIA 91 


(IV. 7), and subsequently elaborated in his Huxley Lecture 
(IV.2), he put forward the suggestion that the earliest 
inhabitants of Asia Minor belonged to the type which he 
called Armenoid, a name that has now passed into anthropo- 
logical literature. He supposed that Mediterranean man was 
a later comer. Von Luschan was inclined to see in these round- 
headed peoples the tribes who were responsible for the issos 
and andros terminations in place names, which are associated 
with many parts of the mainland of Asia and Greece. 

He connected these peoples with the various heterodox 
sects which are found not only in Anatolia but also in North 
Syria and Mesopotamia. All these sects are remarkably 
homogeneous in their composition, and the statistical treat- 
ment of von Luschan’s figures confirms his statement that we 
are dealing with a remarkably homogeneous race in an area 
where most of the peoples are extremely mixed.’ Most of 
these communities are endogamous, and have by continual 
intermarriage succeeded in avoiding the excessive mixing 
which all the peoples in their neighbourhood have acquired. 
How far this endogamous condition has been enduring it 
is impossible to say, but it presumably must date from com- 
paratively early times. 

It is possible that these strange communities may have 
been endogamous before the advent of Christianity, and 
heretics before the days of heresy. Otherwise it is difficult 
to see how they could have kept their purity of type. Von 
Luschan would see in them the scattered relics of the earliest 
inhabitants. He believes that the later comers were of 
Mediterranean stock and that they mixed for the most part 
with the population, and these communities alone remained 
of the old stock. 

If this is so, the original formation of these communities 
must be of very ancient date. Already in the Bronze Age 
it seems that both stocks were present in parts of Anatolia. 
The earliest inhabitants of Cyprus, of whom we have any 
definite traces, are almost certainly a mixed stock, formed 
of the elements of Mediterranean and Armenoid man. Al- 
though it seems not improbable that there was a Neolithic 


1 The standard deviations of the cephalic indices calculated from von 
Luschan’s figures for Lycia are; Turks 5:2, Greeks 6-9, Bektasch and Tad- 
chadsky 2:8, 


92 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Age in Cyprus, no relics of this age in the form of human 
skeletons have been discovered up to the present. I ex- 
amined a number belonging to various periods in the Bronze 
Age. They seemed to me to differ in no essentials from the 
modern inhabitants of the island. If then the aborigines 
had already been swamped by Mediterranean man at this 
comparatively early date, the formation of the homogeneous 
communities must already have begun, a difficulty which it 
is hard to overcome. Both races were existing more or less 
side by side at Kish at a very early date. It seems, however, 
not improbable that the Sumerians belonged to the Armenoid 
race, and the view which traces the Sumerians from the 
Turkestan region may possibly be confirmed when we have 
further definite evidence from the excavators. (See page 103.) 

It seems, therefore, on the evidence which we have at 
present, difficult not to believe that the aborigines, at 
least in Western Asia, were of Mediterranean stock. There 
seems to have been a movement of Armenoid peoples in 
early times towards the west. They reached Malta in the 
Bronze Age, ousting the Mediterranean stock who were there 
in chalcolithic times. It seems probable that there are also 
traces of these same people as far west as Anghelu Rhu in 
Sardinia. Their further extension to the west, which seems 
probable, need not be further discussed here. Colonies appear 
still to survive on the North African coast. They are there 
surrounded with people from a different stock. In Malta, 
however, I was impressed by the fact that they had definitely 
ousted the previous population and, in spite of a continuous 
influx of Mediterranean man throughout historic times, had 
maintained their racial features, in some districts even 
with a fair degree of purity. In one village (Siggewe) the 
standard deviation of the cephalic index of 80 males was 
only 2-95. 

Hasluck (IV. 8) appears to be of opinion that much of 
the racial admixture and the present distribution of the 
racial types in Western Asia are of comparatively recent 
origin. After discussing the identification by von Luschan 
of the coincidence of religious beliefs and anthropological 
types, he continues: ‘‘The locality in which this anthropo- 
logical type [the Armenoid,] is most frequent is the moun- 
tainous bridge-land which lies between the fertile countries 


WESTERN ASIA 93 


of Anatolia, Persia, Mesopotamia, and Syria. This bridge- 
land has never been civilized, though it has been penetrated 
at various times by missionaries—religious, political, and 
military ; in particular, being the old border land between 
Turkey and Persia, it was naturally the resort of Persian 
emissaries during the long wars of the two nations. The 
result of the presumed religious propaganda carried on from 
the side of Persia among still pagan nomads, Kurdish or 
Turkish, possibly also among Armenian Christians, is a patch- 
work of religious compromises of which the outwardly pre- 
dominating elements are Shia Islam, and Armenian Chris- 
tianity, among a people of marked physical homogeneity. 
A certain proportion of these peoples have migrated west- 
wards, as probably in other directions, either from natural 
causes or under pressure of artificial transplantation which 
was carried out in the sixteenth century by the Ottoman 
Government as a means of breaking up the solidarity of the 
border tribes known to be Shia in religion and consequently 
in sympathy with Persia. The emigration processes have 
gone on for centuries, the emigrants from the mountainous 
bridge-land sometimes amalgamating with the men of the 
plains under the influence of a prevalent civilization, some- 
times keeping themselves aloof owing to religious and other 
differences. The bridge-land type when found in the west 
may thus represent immigrations of widely different date, 
ranging from remote antiquity to comparatively modern 
times.” 

While not denying that there have been comparatively 
recent immigrations, it seems probable that the bulk of the 
population was in ancient times not unlike what it is at 
present. It is, however, more than likely that some of 
the homogeneous groups, some of which von Luschan pre- 
sumably considered to be the aborigines may, on the contrary, 
be the last-comers. 

Many have suggested that there is a third element 
in the population, Nordic. The latest supporter of this 
theory appears to be Peake (IV. 9), who in an interesting 
paper on the racial elements at the first siege of Troy, 
suggests that about 2000 B.c. there was an invasion from 
the north-west of xanthochrous, long-headed tribes like the 
modern Kurds, i.e. Nordics. He suggests that some of these 


94 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


steppe folk sacked Hissarlik and proceeded to the grassy 
plains of Central Anatolia, while the remainder skirting the 
coast of the A‘’gean found their way to Thessaly and settled 
in the plains of Larissa. He says that one skull from Thes- 
sally described by Duckworth in Man, ‘judged by the 
illustration, might well be Nordic.” In this view he has 
followed von Luschan also, who saw in the Kurds repre- 
sentatives of the Nordic race. 

Whatever their origin may have been, we find at present 
in Asia Minor several different types of population. There 
are first, a mixed type, with an extremely high standard 
deviation, especially of the cephalic index. This suggests 
that they are a compound of a long and a short-headed type 
of population. This mixed population is found especially in 
towns and on the sea-coast, where in some cases there is a 
definite tendency towards dolichocephaly. The pure round- 
headed type is found in the mountains and swampy districts. 
Cyprus (I. 18) has a mixed population in which the two 
types are blended. The standard deviation of the cephalic 
index in Cyprus is on the living about 4-1, while that for 
Crete is 4:24; as a strong contrast in the Lycian gypsies 
measured by von Luschan it is 2-83. It is of interest to note 
that within the former island there is evidence of local 
types. This variation is, no doubt, due to different mixings 
having taken place. I found that by crossing the mountains 
in Cyprus and travelling from the Bay of Salamis to the 
north coast, a leisurely day’s journey, that the two popula- 
tions were dissimilar. They were, however, closer to one 
another than to groups outside the island. 

It is probable, therefore, that when we come to have exact 
data for the mainland we shall find there also a series of 
local types in addition to the religious sects of whose physical 
type we have already a few accurate measurements. 

In Cyprus there is no appreciable difference between the 
Bronze Age people and the moderns, although the data is 
scanty. Here, again, it seems reasonable to argue from the 
island to the mainland, but at present we can do no more 
than say that the odds seem to be in favour of a similar 
population having existed in early times, as is found in 
Cyprus to-day. 

There remain to be considered the three nations of this 


PLATE III 





CYPRIOT PEASANT 
(A typical Armenoid) 


[ face p. 94 





WESTERN ASIA 95 


region which have, owing to their historical importance, 
become very familiar to the West : the Armenians, the Jews, 
and the Arabs. We have already seen how with our present 
knowledge it would appear that there is a mixed population 
in Western Asia. This mixed population clearly is 
independent of nationality, including as it does Greeks and 
Turks, and other peoples. In spite of this fact, however, it 
must be remembered that our data is very scanty, and that 
there is among the Turkish peasants a type which it seems 
possible sometimes to recognize, but which, so far, has not 
been classified by anthropologists. It is possible that there 
may be traces of eastern or Tatar blood among the Turks. 
The Turks in Cyprus are certainly physically not distinct from 
their Greek neighbours, whether they are in the mainland 
yet remains to be seen; so far no observer appears to have 
been able to make this distinction. 

The case of the other nationalities is equally difficult. It 
is of course easy to detect racial traits, but it is more difficult 
to decide whether they are of fundamental importance. 
There can be little doubt that among the true Armenians 
there is at least an admixture of blood which must be 
classified as Mediterranean. An Armenian skull which was 
recently presented to the Anatomy Department in Oxford, 
with complete data as to its provenance, is certainly of this 
type. It would appear, however, that this is not the normal 
type. The mean Armenian type has a head which has a 
length of about 182mm. on the living, and is absolutely 
and relatively short. The breadth is both absolutely and 
relatively great, the mean being certainly over 150 mm., and 
some authors would make it as high as 159 mm. The cephalic 
index is therefore very great, the means of different authors 
running from 83 or 84 to as much as 87. The head is a large 
one, and is high as well as broad. The bizygomatic breadth, 
which in Cyprus was found to be one of the most constant 
characters, is 186mm., a measurement which is almost 
identical with that which I obtained in Cyprus. I also found 
that on the whole the bizygomatic breadth did not serve to 
distinguish the different local races in Cyprus. It is clearly 
then a character which will be of little service in distinguish- 
ing types in this area. The nose is high and relatively narrow, 
although there is evidence to suggest that the absolute 


96 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


breadth may be great. The nasal index is low and the nose 
itself is very prominent. The stature is sometimes high, but 
is usually between 165 and 167 cms. mean value. Although 
on the whole the type is brunet there is often what Weissen- 
berg has described as an appearance of blondness. The eyes 
are usually brown, but hazel occurs, although somewhat 
rarely. 

In general terms it will be seen that the type coincides 
closely with what we have described as Armenoid; von 
Luschan, therefore, appears to have been justified in his 
use of the term, although we must make the proviso that, 
certainly among Armenians, the Armenoid physical type is 
by no means universal. I have not been able to find any 
data which could be reduced to statistical form, so we can- 
not say at present how far they are mixed. There are, of 
course, Armenians scattered well outside the province which 
bears their name and which has been a thorn in the flesh to 
so many administrations from the Roman times onwards, 
but the question here is of the true inhabitants of Armenia, 
calling themselves Armenians. 

In this country also we find the same type of brachy- 
cephalic religious communities, to which allusion has been 
made already. 

If we are justified on the whole in speaking with certain 
provisos of an Armenian national type, are we equally so in 
dealing with the Jews? Data concerning the Jews has been 
collected from many different sources, and they may be said 
to be, anthropologically, well known. The question is natur- 
ally a vexed one, and has been the occasion for many con- 
troversies and many different opinions. Most observers 
profess to see in the Jewish type one of the most persistent 
varieties of the human race. Others, again, consider that 
the Jewish type varies in different places, the head-form 
accommodating itself to the local variety of head-form. 
‘““They have,” says Ripley, “ unconsciously taken on to a 
large extent the physical traits of the people among whom 
their lot has been thrown.” Boas has affirmed even more 
strongly that the head-form of Jewish immigrants into the 
United States alters in conformity with American standards, 
even in the first generation of immigrants ; the physical effects 
of detention at Ellis Island apparently having a permanent 


WESTERN ASIA 97 


result on the population. Deniker divides the Jews into 
two types, one approximating to the Arab type, the other 
to the Assyroid. He admits that the types have been 
modified to a certain extent by elements from the populations 
among whom they dwell, but he adds: “Even in these cases, 
many traits, such as the convex nose, vivacity of eye, fre- 
quency of erythrism, frizzy hair, thick under-lip, inferiority 
of the thoracic perimeter, ete., show a remarkable per- 
sistence.”’ 

These two views are then totally opposed, and some form 
of reconciliation is necessary if the evidence can be inter- 
preted in such totally different ways. Up to the present 
no evidence has been forthcoming to support Professor Boas’ 
interesting hypothesis, and it has been strongly combated 
on other grounds. The evidence so far adduced by recent 
writers confirms the stability and importance of the cephalic 
index without, perhaps, giving it the pride of place that the 
ardent followers of Retzius would have granted it. With 
comparatively few exceptions, for exceptions do occur, the 
Jews from various parts of the world usually retain the 
characteristic brachycephalic head-form, their mean cephalic 
index being about 81. What, perhaps, is still more remark- 
able is they all have a very similar standard deviation of that 
index, usually between 8 and 4. Few cases occur below that 
limit, and rare cases above. This constant variation is not 
a little remarkable. It suggests that these communities 
which tend to be endogamous remain in about the same state 
of ethnic equilibrium, although they are placed in extremely 
different environmental conditions. But not only do the 
Jews retain their head-form in the majority of cases, they 
also preserve the other characters which Deniker has men- 
tioned, the most noticeable of which is the form of the nose. 

For some reason or other the Jews have been able with a 
remarkable vitality to perpetuate a physical type which has, 
at least in many places, survived to a marked degree. The 
origin of this type is therefore of particular interest. It is 
clear that there is a marked resemblance between Jews and 
Armenians and, though the Armenoid type perhaps pre- 
dominates, there are clearly other elements in the composi- 
tion of the Jewish race. Weissenberg suggests that the 
resemblance of the Jews and the Armenians is due to a mixing 

H 


98 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


during historical times, not in Palestine but in the Caucasus. 
He suggests that here a blond element was introduced, with 
the result that there are two types of Jews, the Semitic dark 
with a fine nose, and an Armenoid with a coarser nose and 
an appearance of blondness. 

The figures which have been published suggest that there 
are at least two types of Jews, owing, clearly, to the different 
admixture which has taken place. I have suggested above 
that the mean cephalic index is about 80 or 81, it is interest- 
ing to note that the mean cephalic index of the Greeks is 
about the same. If, however, the latter are analysed it 
appears that this mean value is actually illusory, because 
there are really two types which are welded together more 
or less imperfectly. The two types seem to be Mediterranean 
and Armenoid man. It seems not unlikely that a similar 
mixing has taken place among the Jews and that the result- 
ing index represents a compésite figure. It is remarkable 
that the most brachycephalic Jews (the Grusinian and those 
from Samarqand) (IV.20) show the greatest variation? ; 
possibly they have the greatest admixture of Armenoid blood 
from mixing among the peoples with whom they live. Those 
from Daghestan are also very brachycephalic, but I have not 
been able to discover their variations. The most long-headed 
do not appear to be either less or more variable than the 
others. It is, however, worthy of notice that those who have 
the least variation of the cephalic index have a cephalic 
index of about, 80 or 81, suggesting that in certain cases the 
mixed type succeeds in eliminating the extreme variations, 
a result which needs further confirmation. The nasal index 
is always so variable and is so liable to be affected by climatic 
conditions, that the difference between the mean values is 
probably not of racial significance even in spite of Weissen- 
berg’s suggestion. 

If we adopt the suggestion that the Jews are a composite 
race, the differences in the cephalic index at once assume 
less importance since, in such a race, a further degree of 
admixture will naturally have a greater effect than such an 
admixture will have in the case of a purer race. Nor is it by 


1 The standard deviations of the cephalic index are, Grusinians (71) 4-2, 
Samarqand (100) 4:1. A hundred South Russian Jews had as low a figure as 
2-48. 


WESTERN ASIA 99 


any means certain that the cephalic index is the most marked 
characteristic of the Jewish race. The other features which 
have been mentioned seem to be almost more persistent in 
their survival. The characters which they present most 
frequently certainly suggest a predominance of Armenoid 
blood, but there is undoubtedly an admixture of Mediter- 
ranean blood. That they have mixed, to a certain degree, with 
other races in various parts of the world is certain, and 
the mixed nature of their origin would account for many 
of their variations, while generally, as a type, they seem to 
be markedly persistent. 

The third national type, the ‘‘ Arabs,”’ now remains to be 
considered. The association of the Arabic tongue with Islam 
has made this matter more difficult, especially since many 
peoples call themselves Arabs, although they may be very 
different in physical type in the same way that many peoples 
call themselves Turks, although they had but little Turkish 
blood in their veins. 

The term Semite has often been used in a racial as well as 
in a linguistic sense, and perhaps even more than in the case 
of the much-abused term Aryan; it is sometimes used to 
mean Jews, sometimes Arabs and sometimes in the much 
wider sense to signify those who speak Semitic languages. 
In other cases it is employed in the semi-racial sense to mean 
the descendants of the Arab conquerors who spread over 
North Africa in the Year of the Elephant (a.p. 570) and 
later. I have met men who claimed to be Arabs who 
were certainly of stocks closely allied to those of Europe, 
others again who were almost pure negroes; others were, for 
the most part, Malays, and some presented to the outward 
gaze little difference from the Chinese. All of them spoke 
Semitic languages. A term, therefore, with so wide a con- 
notation cannot be conveniently used for racial distinctions 
when we are dealing with race from the purely physical 
aspect. 

To-day we have the Jews and the Arabs living side by 
side in Palestine, and the contact between the Arabs and 
the inhabitants of Arabia and those of Syria has always 
been close. For reasons which will appear later, I propose 
to discuss Mesopotamia before I describe the inhabitants 
of Arabia, not only because the history of the two countries 


100 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


is closely linked, but also because the problems raised by the 
ethnology of Arabia can be more easily understood when 
that of Mesopotamia has been discussed. 

In addition to the people who have already been discussed, 
there are found in Syria, as in Asia Minor, certain religious 
communities which have preserved the pure Armenoid type, 
the best known being the Druses and the Maronites of Mount 
Lebanon. 

There are also groups of the Metwali, living in the valley 
of the Leontes, who have long been inhabitants of Syria. 
They also seem to have similar characteristics. Such 
measurements as have been obtained (IV. 15) for them are 
almost exactly similar to those of the Armenians. Chantre 
calls attention to the extreme flattening of the occiput, which 
is characteristic both of this people and also of the Armenoids. 
He concludes that apart from this brachycephalic, all the 
other characters of the people are those which are usually 
associated with dolichocephaly, a statement which seems a 
little difficult to understand. 

To the east of, and rivals of, the Armenians are the Kurds. 
They are probably a very heterogeneous people, although 
there are few accurate statistical data. They have been 
most carefully studied by Chantre (IV.15). Summing up 
their general characters, he concludes that they have a narrow 
face, strong chin, and large stature, but it is difficult to 
obtain an exact figure, presumably because a good deal of 
variation occurs. Sixty per cent of them are mesaticephalic, 
but there are enormous variations, according to the different 
localities, especially where they have come into contact with 
different peoples. Those in the neighbourhood of Armenia 
are brachycephalic, whereas those who have had contact 
with the Persians or the Arabs are dolichocephalic. In 
another article he remarks that the Yesidi, who are essenti- 
ally of Armenoid characteristics, are Kurds, and the Kurds 
of Constanza appear also to belong to this race. It has been 
suggested that these people, or at least some of them, are 
akin to the Nordic race. Chantre, however, describes them 
as being very dark, with eyes of a deep-brown tint. It seems 
more probable, then, that they also represent another ad- 
mixture of the Armenoid and Mediterranean races. It 
should be noted that they practice certain forms of cranial 


WESTERN ASIA 101 


deformation which clearly makes cranial measurements 
unreliable. 

Until recent years Assyriologists have not taken the same 
interest in human remains as the Egyptologists. The skeletal 
material which has reached Europe is therefore scanty. The 
present expeditions in the field are, however, keenly interested 
in the matter, and it is probable that by the time these words 
appear in print considerable material will be available. 

The whole racial position, however, of the Sumerians and 
that historical people whom Assyriologists call Semites! has 
been widely discussed. Dr. Giinther, in his recent work on 
the German people (II. 19), puts forward certain theories 
which appear to be self-contradictory. He states that in 
the fifth millennium B.c. the Sumerians “ with every proba- 
bility ’” appear to have been a people with a Nordic upper 
stratum and a round-headed, flat-nosed—possibly ‘‘ Inner 
Asiatic ’—lower stratum, and “it may well be that in this 
upper stratum we have the earliest of the Nordic migrations.” 
The fall |wntergang| of the Sumerian world was due to the 
dying out of the creative Nordic upper stratum, a fanciful 
suggestion which can hardly be substantiated by any appeal 
to known facts. Giinther further believes that this fall was 
ushered in by the immigration of Semitic-speaking folk of 
the Oriental,? i.e., Mediterranean race, who formed a further 
stratum over the Sumerians (see p. 284). 

On a later page (loc. cit., p. 454) he states that up to the 
second millennium B.c. Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, and Armenia 
were racially a unity, and were peopled by the Vorder- 
asiatische Rasse, presumably the Armenoid race, a state- 
ment which can be clearly disproved by the discoveries of 
Woolley at Carchemish and Ur, and Langdon at Kish, which 
will be discussed in detail later. The Nordic blood he believes 
to have been introduced in the second millennium, and to 
have become mixed with Fischer’s Oriental race, but this 
statement ignores again the population of the region to the 
east (see p. 110). 


1 The Assyriologists appear to mean the people who spoke a ‘‘ Semitic ” 
language and invaded Mesopotamia from Arabia. 

* This Oriental race, a description of which will be found in Baur-Fischer- 
Lenz (II. 17), is the Eastern, or rather Middle Eastern branch of the Mediterra- 
nean race; it has not apparently received a name from English anthropologists, 
nor is Fischer’s designation happy, as it is apt to lead to confusion, as Giinther 
points out, with Deniker’s Race Orientale. 


102 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


If I understand Giinther’s position correctly, he appears 
to believe that the Sumerians belonged essentially to the 
Armenoid race. He has only stated with a query the possi- 
bility of inner Asiatic influence, and has nowhere, it would 
seem, specifically stated what he considers this influence to 
be, but his reference to a flat-nosed people suggests that he 
had Yellow man in mind. 

Dr. Hall (IV. 3,174) has put forward the very different 
hypothesis that the Sumerians were of Indian origin and 
akin to the Dravidian peoples, his theory being based 
on the resemblance he sees of the facial features on the 
monuments and those of some of the inhabitants of India 
to-day. Elliot Smith (II. 17, 151) has suggested that “ the 
old Babylonian sculptures demonstrate the fact that the 
earliest Semites to enter Mesopotamia and Babylonia had 
the Armenoid type of nose and the characteristic flowing 
beard at the time they intruded into the dominions of the 
kings of Sumer and Akkad.” He goes on to show that these 
Armenoid peoples have left modern representatives, who are 
commonly known as Semites, but who have no more claim 
to that name than the Egyptians have to the name Arab. In 
a later chapter he suggests that ‘‘ the Egyptians, Arabs, and 
Sumerians may have been kinsmen of the Brown race, each 
diversely specialized by long residence in its own country.” 
Subsequently he maintains that the Armenoids of Northern 
Syria were able to descend the Euphrates and vanquish the 
more cultured Sumerians. 

His theories have been attacked by Hall as being self- 
contradictory. It seems clear, however, that he wishes to 
contrast two types in Mesopotamia, an earlier comer, 
Sumerian, whom he believes to have been the true bringers of 
culture and to belong to the Brown race, and later Armenoid 
and uncultured conquerors, who were the Semites. 

Physical anthropology unfortunately cannot speak in terms 
of Semites and Sumerians. It is, however, possible to state to 
what racial types the early inhabitants of the valley belonged. 
It is to be regretted this evidence is at present very scanty. 
Till recently the earliest skull which has been recovered from 
this area was an early Bronze Age skull from the citadel 
in Carchemish, which was brought home by Woolley. It 
undoubtedly belongs to the Mediterranean type. 


WESTERN ASIA 103 


A single skull can tell us little of the ethnology of the 
country, but it is of value as showing that even at this com- 
paratively remote period Mediterranean man was to be found 
in the Euphrates valley. The excavations of the joint 
expedition of the University of Oxford and the Field Museum 
of Chicago have had more fruitful results (and Woolley has 
recently brought back a number of skulls which have as yet 
not been described). A series of ten crania were discovered 
in sufficiently good condition for removal to Oxford. They 
were unfortunately much damaged, but their general type 
was clear. The majority of the crania undoubtedly belonged 
to the Mediterranean group. They were remarkable for 
their low cephalic indices, which for the most part were 
well below seventy. The skull from Carchemish already 
referred to belongs to the same type, and this may finally 
turn out to be a local variety, when we have sufficient 
evidence for a detailed analysis of the cranial characters of 
these people. 

In addition to these long-headed peoples the graves from 
Kish also yielded the remains of a second broad-headed race 
of a type which must be described as Armenoid. Both types 
appear to have existed side by side at the time to which these 
graves belong, which Langdon tells me probably corresponds 
to the early Dynastic Period in Egypt. He suggests that the 
Armenoid people are Sumerians and the long-heads “‘ Semites.”’ 
The evidence is not sufficient to warrant so categorical a 
statement. It seems probable, on historical grounds, that the 
Sumerians were for the most part Armenoid racially. Lang- 
don pointed out that one of the characters of the Sumerians 
on the monuments was the inclined orbits, a feature which 
has been shown on page 55 to be an Armenoid character. 
It is also historically true that the Semitic invaders came from 
Southern Arabia, and that in all probability they were of the 
long-headedtype. There is, however, the third possibility that 
the original inhabitants of all Mesopotamia were of this long- 
headed Proto-Egyptian type. From what we know of the 
distribution of this type this seems the most probable sug- 
gestion. When we speak, then, of Sumerians we are speaking 


1 A detailed description of these crania will be found in an appendix to 
Professor Langdon’s account of the excavations. I am indebted to Professor 
Langdon for permission to quote what I haye written in this as yet un- 
published report, 


104 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


rather of a cultural than of a physical unity, although it 
seems certain from the evidence of the monuments that the 
predominantly Sumerian type was Armenoid. 

In lower Mesopotamia on the shores of the Persian Gulf, 
in the “ hot country,” Husing (IV. 28) and others have sug- 
gested that there may have been in ancient times the remnants 
of a population akin to the Negroes, and Husing has gone so 
far as to call them “ Negritos.”” From their representations 
in art they appear to have tightly curled hair, though as 
Husing remarks this may not be due to nature, and short 
strong beards. Their features are also different from those 
of their neighbours. Husing suggests that their descendants 
to-day live in the same region, much intermixed with the 
offspring of Negro slaves. There is, as far as I am aware, no 
evidence other than this somewhat shadowy testimony about 
the actual racial position of these interesting people. In any 
case, it is difficult very often to decide whether there are 
Negro characters in skulls which may belong to the Proto- 
Egyptian race, and secondly, the presence of Negro slaves 
to-day may have changed the original character of the people. 
The definitely proved presence of indigenous negroids in 
Western Asia would be of great interest. 

As with most countries the physical type of the inhabitants 
of Mesopotamia does not seem to have changed essentially 
since early historical times. Ripley states that the Armenoid 
type occurs to-day in Mesopotamia “ sporadically amongst a 
few ethnic remnants.” I do not feel that this is quite a just 
interpretation of the evidence which we now possess for this 
area which has increased since Ripley wrote. It would be 
true to say that certain rather isolated ethnic groups in 
Mesopotamia, as in the Middle East, appear to preserve this 
type in greater purity than is the case with the rest of the 
population. The dominant type in the population, now as in 
earlier times, is the Mediterranean race. There is, as far as 
can be judged, also a very considerable infusion of Armenoid 
blood. The isolated peoples who are described by Ripley as 
ethnic remnants are more probably later comers, as we have 
no evidence to suppose that at any time there was a homogene- 
ous Armenoid population such as Ripley seems to suggest 
once existed in Mesopotamia. It must be admitted, however, 
that our evidence for this area is still unfortunately far from 


WESTERN ASIA 105 


being complete and any conclusion advanced must be neces- 
sarily tentative. 

East of the region of the rivers lies the bridge-land which 
connects Armenia with the plateau of Iran. This region is of 
greatest interest ethnologically, as it forms the connecting 
link, albeit a difficult one, between India and the west. 
Although it is difficult to fix hard-and-fast ethnological 
boundaries, I propose in the pages which follow to discuss 
the inhabitants of the region between Armenia and the Indus 
on the south-east and north-west, and between the lowlands 
of Turan and the sea on the north and south. 

The whole question of the anthropology of the Arabs has 
been very clearly discussed by Seligman (IV. 23), who has 
done much to clear up the difficulties which surround this 
problem. He divides Arabia into three parts, the northern, 
central, and southern. The first extends to the edge of the 
Syrian desert and is for the most part desert, with oases in- 
habited by nomads. The pasturage is inadequate, but there 
is a certain amount of feed for the animals at some times of 
the year. I was informed by an Arab who had spent much of 
his life in this area that it is possible by carefully arranged 
travelling to keep the animals alive, but that each of the 
nomad communities are very jealous of the water rights which 
they possess, a form of jealousy which probably has con- 
siderable effect on the formation of local human strains, 
especially in a people where cousin-marriage was at any rate 
at one time the rule. 

The central part which includes the Hejaz, the Nejd, and 
El Hasr is a stony steppe, but includes the fertile area of the 
holy cities, and there are large stretches of alluvial soil and 
fertile wadies. 

Finally, the south consists of the highlands of the Yemen 
and Asir and the Hadramut. These surround the southern 
desert, which is very little inhabited. Our anthropological 
data are limited practically to the north and the south. 

Seligman, after examining the evidence, has come to the 
conclusion that the north is predominantly long-headed 
while the south is predominantly brachycephalic. He suggests 
that there has been Mesopotamian cultural contact, and that 
the brachycephals from Southern Arabia conform in skull- 
form and facial characters with the Mesopotamian type. He 


106 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


finds on the evidence of coins that this was the case two 
thousand years ago. He further discusses the Arab type in 
North Africa which is beyond our present purpose; it should 
however be noted that he believes that the brachycephalic 
element may be due to Arab influence. Iam however inclined, 
as I have shown on page 103, to put this introduction of the 
round heads at an earlier period, while not denying that the 
later invasions may have had an important effect. 

The recent discoveries in Mesopotamia, which I have been 
discussing in the preceding pages, throw an important light 
on Seligman’s paper. The round-heads from Kish appear to 
me to be extremely similar to those which he has figured from 
Southern Arabia. It seems probable, therefore, that we may 
consider that there was a kinship between the two countries 
at a much earlier date than was originally supposed. But 
unlike the population of Southern Arabia, it would appear 
as if the long-heads were in the majority in Kish, although 
our evidence at present is too scanty. 

Seligman suggests that the round-headed element in Arabia 
probably reached that country through Mesopotamia. This 
seems a very probable suggestion but, as we know that the 
round-heads were pressing mto Egypt and into Northern 
Africa in early times, there is no reason why it should not have 
come also from the north, even though the present Northern 
Arabs show less of this element in their features. At present, 
however, it is impossible till we have further evidence to make 
anything more than a very tentative suggestion as to the 
solution of the problem, and to note that in both the directions 
whence the round-headed element may have come there is 
abundant evidence of round-heads, but that the population 
appears to be predominantly long-headed in Northern Arabia. 

The figures which Seligman gives make it clear that these 
round-heads are for the most part typical Armenoids. The 
population of Northern Arabia presents less difficulties than 
does that of the south. The dominant element in the popu- 
lation is essentially of the Brown race, and they were in 
all probability the aboriginal inhabitants of the whole of 
Arabia. 

Unfortunately we have not at present sufficient evidence 
to state in any way at all how far the two types have mixed. 
The problem here in Arabia is, therefore, very similar to the 


WESTERN ASIA 107 


ethnological problem in Asia Minor, and the two same racial 
stocks are also concerned. It will be abundantly clear that 
we cannot attach any racial type to the term ‘“‘ Arab.”” We 
cannot argue from the invasions of ‘‘ Semites ”? from Arabia 
into Mesopotamia what was the type of the Semites or of the 
Sumerians, because we have both Armenoid and Mediterranean 
man in Mesopotamia, and we have both types in Northern 
and in Southern Arabia, although a different type may be 
said to be dominant in each area. 


B. THE PEOPLES OF THE MIDDLE EAST 


The area which forms the subject of this section is one that 
is ill-defined geographically. Politically it includes two 
independent states and part of Russia and India. Ethno- 
logically, however, mixed as the population is, it forms a con- 
venient and very interesting unit. I have called it the Middle 
East, but the limits are beyond what is usually called by that 
name and does not include all the western part of the Middle 
East. In this section I propose to discuss the inhabitants of 
Persia, Baluchistana, and Afghanistan on the south, and 
what are known at present, under the somewhat fluid con- 
ditions of politics in Central Asia, as the Turkoman and 
Uzbeg Republics. In general terms the area may be defined 
as the region stretching from the head of the Persian Gulf 
to the northern extremity of the Caspian, and from the mouth 
of the Indus to Kashgar, the southern boundary being the 
sea and the northern the Syr Daria. Between the Caspian 
and the Aral seas there is no boundary, and the whole region 
is ill-defined. 

If we include the Negroid peoples at the head of the Persian 
Gulf who have already been described, we have here a true 
officina gentium which numbers among its inhabitants repre- 
sentatives of White, Yellow, and Black races, and which, as 
recent political activities have shown, is closely connected 
ethnically with all the great empires of Asia. Although the 
importance of this country to students of the ethnology of 
Asia cannot be overestimated, it has not been recently studied 
carefully as a whole, although among the older anthropological 
works Ujfalvy’s studies especially have attempted to show 
how this region is related to the neighbouring peoples. 


108 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Apart from the Turkoman steppes most of the area is 
elevated, and rises to great heights in the Pamir plateau. 
Much of it is desert and much extremely hot, although at 
certain periods and in some places always the more elevated 
parts of the region approach tundra conditions. East of the 
great valley of the twin rivers, and connecting the uplands 
of Western Asia with those of the central plateau, lies a great 
plateau region, composed, over much of its area, of mountain 
ranges which are sometimes irregular and sometimes parallel 
to one another. The latter are separated from one another 
by broad intervening plains, while the lower regions of the 
former consist of valleys—in some places fertile—and of 
deep ravines. The region is bounded on the north by the 
steppes of Turkestan and on the south by the Gulf of Oman 
and the Persian Gulf. On the west there is a sequence first of 
alluvium, secondly of foothills and forest and a series of 
marginal oases, whose early history and relation to the people 
of the valley has been succinctly described by Myres (IV. 
1, 90 and 119). The fringing country formed the Land of 
Elam, and the oases ancient and modern Persia, where is 
found “ the intermont plains and upland valleys, which sus- 
tained the old Medes and Persians, the first highlanders to 
play a part in universal history.” Beyond lies the desert, 
much of which is salt strewn, but which in chalcolithiec times 
must have sustained a population. The northern part, 
bordering on the steppes, also played a part in early civiliza- 
tion, as we know from the great site at Anau near Askabad 
(III. 2), although this region lies beyond the borders in 
Turkestan. To the north-east the country rises to the elevated 
region of Afghanistan, and so connects with the Hindu Kush 
and the plateau of the Pamir. 

Both Afghanistan and Baluchistan are made up very 
largely of desert; in the latter region the population is 
everywhere scarce, and there is little cultivation except in 
the north-west and on the Sind border. In the former 
patches of fertile land are found in some of the more favoured 
valleys, and from the point of view of ethnology the contrast 
in environmental conditions, which varies with altitude, is 
of great interest. The desert nature of the country is one 
that should especially be stressed. There is an undoubted 
ethnic connection through this inhospitable land between 


WESTERN ASIA 109 


the Near East and India, and apart from the difficult question 
of Huntingdon’s theories, it seems necessary to presume a 
much drier condition at present than in former times. The 
boundary between India and the territories on the west is of 
great interest to our present purpose. The northern part 
of the boundary is guarded by mountain masses which 
diminish to the low foothills of Mekran on the coasts of the 
Arabian Sea. Between the Indus and the foothills there is 
a strip of territory which varies from as much as 200 miles 
to practically nothing. This strip is extremely arid, although 
it is intensely cultivated where there is any water. The 
vegetation decreases from south to north, and as the hills 
are approached the landscape is made up of stones and bare 
rock. In the summer the temperature is very great, in the 
winter the cold is intense, and Vincent describes the means 
of subsistence of the tribesmen as “‘a ragful of grain, a handful 
of firewood, and water from a stream or contaminated pool.” 

There is a very ancient road from Koh-i-Malik Siah to 
Nashki and thence south-east to India. Apart from the 
Khyber and the Bolan passes there are few other ways 
through the mountains, and there is a long belt of peaks, 
10,000 feet high. Desert, then, and mountains guard the 
road, and it is difficult to-day to trace the way in which the 
ancient migrations, which certainly occurred, must have 
followed. 

To the north of Afghanistan lies the home of the Turko- 
mans. The environment in which they live has been care- 
fully described by Javorski (IV. 30). They occupy a big 
territory between the mountainous region of Persia and 
Afghanistan and the Oxus, the north-west boundary ex- 
tending from the Aral to the Caspian Sea. Practically the 
whole of this region is steppe, nine-tenths of it being plain 
and the rest mountain and upland. The four rivers of the 
region are the Amu Daria, the Murgat, the Herirud, and the 
Atrek, but the last two contain little water and the keynote 
of this region, like the rest of this whole area, is water. The 
steppe is made up for the most part of loess and sand with 
a typical steppe flora. The Duab of Turkestan, between the 
Amu Daria and the Syr Daria, is made up of steppe of a 
similar character. 

The keystone, as it were, of the whole region is made by 


110 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


the plateau of the Pamirs, the “‘ roof of the world.’ This 
whole area is made up of a series of parallel ridges and valleys. 
The elevation of the floors of the latter average 11,000 
feet and the ridges rise several thousand feet above this. 
Here in this lofty region is the meeting-place of the different 
races of Asia. | 

It seems certain that we have in this whole region 
representatives of Nordics, or, more probably, Proto-Nordics, 
among the Turkomans; the bulk of the population is cer- 
tainly Armenoid or Alpine, while there are abundant traces 
people who are akin to Mediterranean man. To the east of 
there is contact with Yellow man. 

At present there seems to be little evidence about the 
early inhabitants of the region. As I shall show later, the 
undifferentiated character of the Turkomans suggests that 
they are the remains of an early population, but probably 
they are more to be connected with the region of the steppes 
than with this region as a whole. It has been suggested that 
the early home, and possibly the area of characterization of 
the Armenoids, was in Turkestan. It seems not unlikely that 
they may have originated in the region we are considering; 
indeed, it seems difficult at present to account for their 
distribution without accepting that suggestion. From this 
region, possibly at the end of the glacial period, the round- 
headed races seem to have spread out along the central 
lines of the Eurasiatic continent. It is, in any case, almost 
beyond doubt that they originated to the north of the great 
central massif, and their distribution along it would suggest 
that their original home was not far to the north. Probably 
these movements of the round-heads, which resulted in 
their present distribution, began at an early date, and 
I am inclined to think that the population of Central 
Asia was not very unlike what it is at present when the 
great movements took place in the third millennium B.c., to 
which Haddon appears to attribute some of the features in 
the present population of this region. However, such a 
question must remain purely a matter of conjecture till the 
spade of the archeologists has given the student of paleo- 
ethnology more material on which to work. 

The ethnology of the region presents particular difficulties, 
because the races here seem to be very mixed and also to 


WESTERN ASIA Ld 


belong to what appear to be the undifferentiated stocks, 
which in the west are more clearly recognizable. Ujfalvy 
was inclined to see only two different types, a long- and a 
short-headed. It seems as if the grouping must be further 
elaborated. 

The long-headed people include various branches of the 
Mediterranean-Brown race. Some of them are apparently 
akin to the so-called Pre-Dravidians of India, whose racial 
affinities are discussed on page 136. Haddon believes that 
there are traces of these people in Susiana, and Holdich 
(II. 10) appears to suggest a not dissimilar type in Balu- 
chistan. The exact racial position of these peoples is, how- 
ever, little known at present. There is, on the other hand, 
abundant evidence of the presence of people who are closely 
akin to the present Brown man of Western Asia, and pos- 
sibly the distinction between the groups is insignificant. Such 
people are found in the south-west of Persia, especially the 
Lori in the neighbourhood of Persepolis, and indeed this 
type may be said to be very general among the Persians. 

The Azerbaijani also probably belong to the same group. 
In all these cases, however, it is extremely likely that 
there is some alien admixture. It is more than probable 
that the mixing is due to the presence of Proto-Nordic blood. 
These latter are characterized by high stature, big-boned 
build and relative fairness. On the Turkoman steppes we 
find this type extremely well represented. Javorski (l.c.) 
found that they were tall in stature, about 169 cms. in the 
males with a mean cephalic index of 76, although this figure is 
very variable, the limits being 69 and 82. The head is abso- 
lutely long and large, the glabello-occipital length being 
193 mm. and the breadth 146 mm.; 45 per cent of the eyes 
were found to be brown and 14 per cent light grey. It is 
often extremely difficult in this region to distinguish the 
two long-headed groups, especially where admixture has 
taken place, but on the steppes, where the Turkomans seem 
to have preserved the pure type, the distinction is very 
clear. 

This same type appears to be found also on the highlands 
to the east. Among the peoples of the Hindu Kush and of 
Afghanistan there also is found a tall, dolichocephalic type 
of man. They have been called Indo-Afghan, Indo-Aryans, 


112 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


and by other names, but it seems that in general terms we 
may classify them with the Turkomans. It is more than 
probable that in many, if not most, places they are mixed 
with other elements, but their main features seem to be 
unaltered. 

Attention should here be drawn to the terminology which 
is found in the textbooks and which is apt to cause confusion 
to the student. The Turkomans are usually described as 
being mainly “‘ Iranian in type.” But the term has several 
different connotations. Ripley clearly defines it as being 
similar, if not identical, with his Mediterranean type. But 
Ujfalvy had already used it to mean the round-headed 
peoples yet to be described. Haddon has returned to the 
older use of the term, and it is in this sense that it must be 
used. Even, however, in Ripley’s sense it is not entirely 
satisfactory, as it fails to distinguish clearly between the 
different types of long-heads. 

I have therefore adopted Haddon’s term of Proto-Nordic 
for these steppe peoples and their representatives in other 
parts of this region, for it is probably here better than else- 
where that the undifferentiated type from which the Nordic 
sprang has survived. Many writers, especially in recent 
years Myres and Peake, have drawn attention to the steppe 
region which they postulated for the area of characteri- 
zation of the Nordic race. Here on the Turkoman steppes 
these conditions are excellently fulfilled. Whether these were 
the original steppes on which the race began is at present 
hardly to be discussed, as the archeological evidence is too 
deficient. _ 

There remains the very important round-headed element 
in the population. We find here, as is often the case else- 
where, that the round-headed peoples are more abundant 
on the uplands than on the plains. In the region of the 
Hindu Kush and the Pamirs the population is extremely 
round-headed, especially among such people as the Tajiks. 
The stature is often fairly high, possibly due in many cases 
to admixture with Proto-Nordics. The degree of fairness also 
varies. On the figures given by Ujfalvy there seems to be 
a definite correlation between the tall statures and the fair- 
ness of the skin. This would accord well with the suggestion 
that there is an admixture of Proto-Nordic blood. The most 


eS ee — — l.hLhUCUrO 


WESTERN ASIA 113 


round-headed people are the Tajiks of Ferghana and some 
-of the Galtchas. 

The exact relationship of these round-heads to those which 
we have already studied presents considerable difficulties. 
The extreme form of the head seems to suggest the presence 
of Armenoid man. In many other ways, however, the people 
seem to possess characters which would link them up with 
the true Alpine race. 

The very frequent occurrence of fairness’ might be at- 
tributed to an admixture with Proto-Nordics, but in many 
cases the people who are comparatively fair present none of 
the other Proto-Nordic characters. It must, however, be 
remembered that in Europe at least the Alpine peoples are 
relatively fair. There is therefore no actual difficulty in 
supposing that this fairness may not be one of their char- 
acteristics even in this Central Asiatic region. It is difficult 
at present, however, to account for the fact that our evidence 
seems to point to the presence of both groups of the round- 
heads. There seems to be two ways out of the difficulty. 
One possible solution is that we have here a mixture of two 
different branches of the same race. The other solution, and 
it is one which the present evidence would rather seem to 
justify, is that here in the Pamirs we have surviving remnants 
of the undifferentiated stock from which the two groups 
both sprang. In other words, we ought, though I should 
hesitate to do so until we have more evidence on the subject, 
possibly to describe the Iranian peoples as Proto-Alpine. 
This round-headed type is that for which the name Iranian 
should be reserved. Ujfalvy (IV. 381) considers that the 
Galtchas and the mountain Tajiks are the purest repre- 
sentatives of this type in Central Asia. He draws attention 
to their three most important characters—their moderate 
stature, their chestnut hair, and their extreme brachycephaly. 
They are purer in the mountains than in the plains, and, 
indeed, the plain Tajiks are very much mixed with Proto- 
Nordic blood. 

I have so far been dealing exclusively with what may be 
described as the Western element in the population. East 
of the region we are considering this element, as will be seen, 
may be described as predominant. Culturally, at least, it 
has played an important part in the history of all the region, 


I 


114 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


and the matter will be made clearer if the general position 
of the Turks in Central Asia is now examined. The ethno- 
logical evidence has been very carefully summarized by 
Czaplicka (II. 11). She groups the Iranian Turks as follows 
into six groups. There are first, the Turkomans who have 
been already discussed. Secondly, the Sarts in Ferghana and 
Syr Daria, and sporadically in Turkestan. These she be- 
lieves to have been a mixture of the original Iranian in- 
habitants (Tajiks) with their Turanian conquerors the 
Uzbegs. Thirdly, there are the Taranchi or Ili Tatars, an 
interesting group who will be described when the inhabitants 
of Sinkiang are discussed (page 173). The fourth group are 
the Uzbegs in parts of Syr Daria, Ferghana, and in the 
Khanates of Khiva and Bokhara. She classes the Kipehah 
in Ferghana with these peoples. The name is purely a 
political one and is probably derived from Uzbeg Khan of 
the Golden Horde (1812-1340). Probably they belong to 
the same ethnic group as the Kaizak-Kirghiz. These latter 
live in the north and east part of the Aral Caspian basin and 
outside our present area in the Orenburg steppes. They are 
probably related to the Karakirghiz. Finally, there are the 
Kara-Kalpak, another Turkic tribe of the same group who 
live in the region of the Oxus, in Kokand and in the Khanate 
of Khiva. 

It is clear that this grouping, while it cannot be accepted 
from the physical point of view, throws considerable light 
on the difficult problem before us. We clearly must reject 
the “ethnic” grouping which is suggested by the Uzbeg 
Republic, the Uzbegs being comparatively few in number 
and representing merely a ruling class. The Sarts are ad- 
mittedly a mixture. There seems to be little evidence about 
the remainder. They are, however, probably of the same 
family as Czaplicka states as the Karakirghiz. These people 
are better known and will be described on page 197. They 
are akin to Yellow man. It seems, therefore, that we can 
safely disregard the term Turk when we are discussing the 
ethnology of Central Asia. The description of the Central 
Asiatic type given by Ivanoski seems to be a deseription 
of a mixture of Alpine blood with Proto-Nordic which, as 
we have seen, is widely spread among the Turkic and other 
peoples of the Middle East. 


; CHAPTER V 
INDIA 


ie no part of Asia is it so necessary for the ethnologist to 
study the geographical features as in India, and there 
are few parts of Asia where the ethnology and geography 
have been so carefully studied. I have dealt, therefore, with 
these problems at what may seem disproportionate length, 
both because of their intrinsic interest and because of the 
amount of work which has been done on the subject. 

Briefly, India may be described as a vast lozenge, divided 

longitudinally into two halves. It is over a million and a 
half square miles in extent. The northern aspect is bounded 
by the loftiest mountains in the world, and the southern 
flanked by the sea. In the Himalaya the climate approaches 
that of the Arctic, the north-western desert has records of 
fantastically high temperatures, the jungle areas are as 
humid as almost any country in the world. Between these 
extremes of heat and cold, dryness and humidity, there are 
most possible combinations of climate, in places varying 
considerably according to the season. Temperate conditions 
are on the whole rare, and for the most part, although much 
of India lies outside the tropics, the climate is of an extreme 
type. 
Although the political boundaries of India stretch from 
Mekran on the coast of the Arabian Sea to Yunnan and the 
Mekong, I propose to limit myself to a narrower area. Ethno- 
graphically, it is more convenient to treat the north-west 
frontier of India as running along the line of the Indus, from 
Gilghit, in the north, to the actual mouth of the river. 

The eastern ethnological boundary runs, roughly speaking, 
along the mountains in a north-easterly direction from 
Chittagong, along what is the divide between the Brahma- 
putra and the Irawadi, or, speaking in political terms, the 
eastern boundary of Assam. I am therefore excluding the 

115 


116 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


north-west frontier province and Burma, but including the 
rest of India proper. 

The area then to which this chapter is devoted extends 
from the Himalaya on the north to Cape Comorin on the 
south. It is divided into two parts, the boundary being 
formed by the Vindhya Mountains. The only practical way 
into the southern part lies through the northern, but the 
older geological formations of the south differ both geo- 
graphically and ethnologically, and deserve separate treat- 
ment. 

The northern part of India is bounded on its northern 
aspect by a vast elevation of land surface which radiates, 
as it were, from the Pamirs and forms a series of mountain 
ranges connected by high plateaux. The Himalaya, the 
highest of these ranges, forms the actual northern boundary ~ 
of India, and has always been one of the most impassable 
barriers in Asia. This great range cuts off the plains of 
India from the now barren plateaux of Central Asia. Within 
the region we are considering, from Srinagar to the valley of 
the Brahmaputra, a man may hardly pass the barrier; only 
by the Chumbi Pass is there any convenient access, along the 
old road which leads to Lhasa, but even this road is no easy 
highway. The ways into India are therefore along the 
north-west frontier and those comparatively easy ranges 
which form the boundary of Assam. The western elements 
in the population must have come by the former and the 
eastern by the latter. 

Immediately south of the Himalaya lies the great Indo- 
Gangetic plain. Here is Hindustan proper, which includes 
part of the Himalayan system, the great alluvial plains, and 
the broken central plateau of Malwa and Bundelkhund. 
The mountain area, which consists of two ranges, not a single 
chain, communicates in the west directly with the interior 
of Asia by a series of fertile valleys, Kashmir, Kulu, Dehra 
Dun, but to the east the mountains are cut off from the 
lowlands by the unhealthy region of the Terai. 

Apart from the broken country which we already alluded 
to, the plains consist almost entirely of alluvium. The Indus 
rises north of the Himalaya, but thirteen hundred miles of 
its length is in India, where it flows in a southerly direction, 
apt, especially in the old days, to behave as the rivers of 


INDIA 117 


China and to change its course. The Ganges flows almost 
parallel with the mountains for nearly fifteen hundred miles. 
It is joined by the Brahmaputra just before it enters the sea. 
Between them these two rivers form a delta which is 50,000 
square miles in area. The two great river systems are sepa- 
rated by the Aravallis, to the west of which mountains there 
is a strip of desert which was formerly watered by the Hakra, 
a river which has now vanished. 

The climate of the two valleys offers a great contrast. The 
Indus flows through a hot, dry country. Along the lower 
reaches cultivated areas are only found comparatively near 
to the river itself. The population has always a small density 
in this area, and contrasts strongly with the Ganges valley. 
Here the climate is humid, the vegetation luxuriant, and the 
number of persons to the square mile exceedingly numerous. 
The rainfall then forms one of the most important features 
which attract the notice of the student of the ethnology of 
Northern India, and it is possible with Crooke to divide the 
people into three groups—those who dwell in an area of 
insufficient rainfall, which passes sometimes into true desert, 
those who dwell in the area of the deltas, and those who 
live under the intermediate conditions of the higher valleys. 
By far the greater number of people live in the humid allu- 
vial region, either in the deltas or in the valleys above the 
deltas. The occupation of a vast majority is agriculture. 

The southern part of India is divided from the north by 
the deep trench through which the Narbada flows, the 
Vindhya Mountains thus forming the southern boundary of 
the Hindustan. The division is, on the whole, marked by a 
broad belt of hills and forest. To the east the Mahanadi 
forms a boundary similar to that of the Narbada on the west, 
but its course is more winding. The peninsula is of an older 
geological formation and differs thus both in its structure 
and for the most part in the types of people who inhabit it. 
There are, however, some curious cases of Himalayan flora, 
and possibly fauna, in the south. The boundary is by no 
means so absolute as that which shuts in Hindustan on the 
north. In the west and the centre the passes are easy and 
form an easy path for invaders, a fact strikingly demonstrated 
by the southward extension of the Mahrattas. To the east 
matters are somewhat different, and Chota Nagpur and 


118 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


the Santal Parganas have formed a place where jungle tribes 
may and have taken refuge. 

Whereas most of the north is alluvial, the Deccan consists 
of a high-terraced plateau, sloping from west to east, so that, 
with the exception of the Narbada and the Tapti, at its 
northerly limit all the important streams flow into the Bay 
of Bengal. The Western Ghats form a high escarpment on 
the west, leaving only a small belt of plain between the 
mountains and the sea. The eastern plain is broader, and 
on the south-east there are the comparatively broad plains 
of Madura, Ramnad, and Tinnevelly. 

The Ghats themselves are raised above the general level 
of the plateau, the greatest depression being in the region 
which is drained by the Kistna. The general surface may 
be deseribed as a level plain, out of which there rise series 
of isolated hills. On the western border the surface is diver- 
sified by spurs which extend from the Ghats into the plain. 
This plateau region is bounded on the south by the Nilgiris 
where, for the most part, the scenery consists of rolling grass 
covered down, which is broken by patches of dense jungle. 

This necessarily brief account does not do justice to the 
great diversities of natural conditions which affect man in 
the southern part of India. Although nowhere are the con- 
ditions as extreme as in the north, yet the Western Ghats 
form a blanket which absorbs much of the south-west mon- 
soon, making the rainfall on the coast considerable, and in 
parts of the plateau very low. The hilly region, however, north 
of the Godavari has in places a mean annual rainfall of over 
sixty inches. There are also very considerable differences 
in vegetation, varying with the rainfall and the basic scenery. 
The population is nowhere as dense as in the valley of the 
Ganges nor, speaking generally, as low as the desert area 
outside the sphere of influence of the Indus. Speaking very 
generally, the differences between different areas are smoothed 
out and the southern part of India has a population which 
may probably be compared to much of China proper, other 
than the extremely densely, or extremely thinly populated 
parts of that empire. 

The northern boundary has been already discussed. It 
would have seemed at first sight more logical to have dis- 
cussed the southern boundaries at the same time, but I have 


INDIA 119 


reserved this discussion to the end because this position 
more clearly brings out the peculiar position of the country. 
Southern India is a cul-de-sac whose only outlet is the 
relatively small island of Ceylon, which is ethnologically 
closely linked up with it. There is no escape for any people 
who may once pass out of the Indo-Gangetic plains, unless 
they return by the way in which they came. They must 
either hold their own against any waves of immigrants which 
may press upon them, emigrate by sea, or die out. In this 
way, although there are numerous traces of what may well 
be called aboriginal populations in the north, such peoples 
form the dominant feature of the south. 

If Peshawar, Gorakhpur, and Nagpur be joined, the 
triangle so formed on the map will include the principal 
wheat areas, which extend down the Narbada and the Tapti 
to Amraoti, and down the Indus to Kanpur. Rice forms the 
staple food of those who can afford it over most of the south and 
east country. Its typical home in India is the great valley areas 
of the Ganges, the Mahanadi and the Godavari. The valley 
of the Kistna is also a vast rice-growing tract, and Tanjore 
may be similarly classified. But rice is grown especially in 
the south wherever it can be grown by means of irrigation, 
and attempts are made to make it grow, even where the 
crop often fails. The jungle tribes grow rice where they can, 
and some of the Mundas are skilful makers of terraces, not 
unlike those found in Eastern Asia. From the economic 
point of view it is interesting to note that the west coast 
is attempting rapidly to substitute commercially valuable 
crops, such as cocoa-nut, tobacco, spices, pepper, and so on. 
But the population here is not self-supporting, and imports 
rice from Burma. Dry grains are grown over much of India, 
especially where conditions for growing rice are unsatisfactory. 
The type of grain varies according to the geographical con- 
ditions. The natural vegetation needs little comment. It 
varies from a desert flora to a dense equatorial forest. AlI- 
though, to a certain extent, man supplements his fare with 
wild produce, when owing to the failure of his crops he is 
driven to depend on the jungle, he is then brought to the 
verge of starvation. 

With these geographical features before us it will be clear 
that man in India is exposed to widely different climatic 


120 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


conditions. In some parts he has been isolated for long 
periods in regions which can never have been easy to traverse. 
In others he has been open to continual disturbance and to 
outside influence. In the former it seems not improbable 
that the climate has had opportunities to stamp itself upon 
the bodies of men, in the latter the most potent factors appear 
to have been the little understood influences of racial ad- 
mixture. But isolation and contact with outside races are 
not the only influences which have played an important part 
in the building of the present races of India. 

The influence of geographic environment can be very 
conveniently studied in India and opens a wide field of 
research which has been at present but little traversed. The 
direct influence of climate cannot but strike every student 
of the peoples of India. There is a great contrast, for 
instance, between the inhabitants of the great river valleys 
of the north, the high plateau of the centre and the 
jungle and hill tracts of the south. But climate has had an 
indirect as well as a direct effect; it has, for instance, 
ensured different types of food supply, and even the jungle 
peoples only exist on the natural products of their forest 
homes in time of famine. Most of them, however, probably 
supplement their stock in this way. On the plateau of 
the Deccan the basis of the food supply is millet, in the 
Punjab the most important grains are wheat and barley. 
The peoples of the humid, warm valley of the Ganges use, 
as do their kinsmen of Eastern Asia, rice as the staple of 
their diet. 

We shall see in the sequel the very great importance of 
these direct and indirect influences of climate on the peoples 
of India. It is of importance to point out here that, as far 
as we know at present, heredity is a potent factor which is 
at least equal to, if it does not dominate, all other factors 
combined. We shall expect to find, therefore, that those 
races which have been longest under the influence of certain 
climatic conditions are most in equilibrium with them, and 
that features which may be justly accounted to be the direct 
result of certain environmental conditions have become in 
the course of ages features which may be justifiably called 
racial. We may, therefore, find two types, for instance 
Kondhs and Mundas, dwelling side by side, both, it may be, 


INDIA 121 


of the same stock, or of very different origin. One may, 
owing to the time that it has occupied the area, be eminently 
fitted to the conditions experienced there, whereas the other, 
a more recent arrival, still preserves many features in com- 
mon with the parent stock, living possibly under very 
different conditions. 

Although, as far as possible, I have endeavoured to make 
but small reference in this book to sociological factors in 
determining ethnographic features, it is hardly possible to do 
this in India. The caste system with all its complexities is 
in part at least as interesting to the student of the human 
frame as it is to the student of human manners. The subject 
is naturally a very difficult one, but in the main outline the 
following features of the system seem most important for 
our present purpose. 

In general terms caste may be defined, as Richards (V. 14) 
has suggested, as the ‘‘ endogamous group.”’ There are very 
few exceptions to this rule. In Malabar the relationship of 
Nambudris with Nair girls is not really marriage, but more 
probably a relic of an old matrilineal condition combined 
with overlordship. The Nambudri is a kind of “‘ lord of the 
manor,” and in any case—and this is the important point— 
his progeny by Nair girls are Nairs. This can hardly be 
considered as marriage. Concubinage which occurs between 
a man of higher caste and a woman of lower caste is always 
considered as such, and the converse is, of course, unknown. 
There are curious and apparent exceptions to the general 
rule among the Zemindar class, but these cannot be con- 
sidered of sufficient force to invalidate the general rule. 
Tabus, other than marriage, are not to our present purpose, 
and we may say that at present caste produces, at least in 
theory, a series of endogamous groups. But the conditions 
which have been given above show that these groups cannot 
be considered from the purely physical point of view as 
absolutely preventing the mixing of different strains. 

Where we get such a system, even with exceptions, it 
might be expected that we should find in India less variation 
from type than we find elsewhere. This, on the whole, does 
not hold good, partly owing to the fact that caste is not in 
itself a very ancient institution in its most rigorous sense, 
and partly owing to the very nature of the caste system 


122 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


itself which is so vigorous a feature of Indian life that it is 
continually extending itself. 

It would seem at first sight as if caste were essentially a 
means which divided society horizontally, but its extent is 
wider, and there are what may be called vertical divisions 
as well as, for example, the castes among Christian converts. 
Many different types of castes may be distinguished; but 
the classification which follows, essentially that given by 
Risley, will be found a simple division for practical purposes, 
although there are difficulties in some cases. 

First, there is the tribal type of caste. Tribes, by a natural 
tendency, become castes. It is possible that the Sudras 
originally represented the whole mass of the early population. 
We get good examples to-day in the tribes of Chota Nagpur, 
the Khonds of Orissa, and the Nagas. The tribes of the 
North-West Frontier seem to show a tendency to become 
castes. 

The second type may be described as occupational. This 
form of caste is, perhaps, most familiar to Europeans, and 
trade castes are so numerous as to need no further enlarge- 
ment. A third type of caste is of particular interest and shows 
how fallacious a guide caste may be to the ethnologist. This 
type may be described as sectarian. Every new reformer 
in India begins by proclaiming that all men are brothers 
and that there must be no more caste. His followers thereby 
out-caste themselves, and in the mass of a population who 
exists by means of castes very soon not only become a new 
caste, but soon form new sub-castes among themselves. A 
series of new castes, which may be described as our fourth 
class, are formed by the crossing of one caste with another. 
Risley has suggested as a fifth class the “ national castes,” 
of which he gives as an example the Newars, a Mongoloid 
people who were the ruling race in Nepal till the Gurkha 
invasion of 1769. 

Castes may also be formed by migration where a group 
moves, and by outcasting itself forms m the new home a 
different caste from that to which it belonged in the old 
home. Finally, it has been suggested that certain castes 
may have arisen from change of custom, as, for instance, 
the Rajputs and the Jats. 

There seems to be no doubt that the original meaning 


INDIA 123 


attached to caste was that of colour. This would suggest 
that the earliest castes were either of the tribal, the national, 
or the migratory type. These types, if they never mixed, 
would tend to have a marked influence on the physical type 
of their members. Even to-day, as we shall see, there often 
tends to be a difference in physique between some of the 
castes. Others, again, have a wide difference of type in their 
members ; the great difference between the Brahmans is very 
striking, but there is an equally great difference between 
some of the Jats. In the former case, however, it may be 
objected that the Brahman community, full of sects, often 
antagonistic to one another, is too big to be called a caste. 

Caste, then, without giving a definite ethnological standard, 
will at least be of assistance in dividing up the complex 
races of the vast Indian peninsula. 

Deniker’s classification is unsatisfactory. He says, ‘‘ The 
variety of types found in the country is due to the crossing 
of two indigenous races, Indo-Afghan and Melano-Indian, 
or Dravidian, with the admixture here and there of foreign 
elements, Turkish and Mongol in the north, Indonesian in the 
east, Arab and Assyroid in the west, and, perhaps, Negritoid, 
in the centre. The Indo-Afghan race of high stature, with 
light brown or tanned complexion, long face, wavy or straight 
hair, prominent and thin nose, dolichocephalic head, pre- 
dominates in the North-west of India. The Melano-Indian 
or Dravidian race, also dolichocephalie but of short stature, 
with dark brown or black complexion, wavy or frizzy hair, is 
chiefly found in the south. In it two sub-races may be dis- 
tinguished. A platyrrhinian one, with broad flat nose, rounded 
face, found in the mountainous regions of Western Bengal, 
Oudh, and Orissa, also at several points of Rajputana and 
Gujarat. Then in South India and in the Central Provinces 
to the south of the rivers Narbuddha and Mahanadi, the 
other sub-race, leptorrhinian with narrow prominent nose 
and elongated face, may be noted in some particular groups, 
especially among the Nairs, the Telugus, and the Tamils.” 
He divides the Melano-Dravidians into Dravidians and 
Kolarians, a purely linguistic division which need not con- 
cern us here. 


1 As the term Kolarian is still to be found in many ethnological textbooks, 
the following note (for the substance of which I am indebted to Mr. Charles 


124 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


This classification differs very much from some others 
which have been suggested, and it is, perhaps, best to defer 
criticism till other classifications have been examined. 

The most general classification of the peoples of India, 
however, is that of Risley, which was first published in the 
Report of the Census of 1901 and subsequently in his book 
on The Peoples of India. This classification is so important 
that it must be given in some detail. 

Risley divides the inhabitants of India into the following 
types. His first type he calls Turko-Iranian, who have 
practically the exclusive possession of Baluchistan and the 
North-west Frontier.1 They have broad heads, the mean 
indices varying from 80 among the Baloch of the Western 
Punjab to 85 among the Hazara of Afghanistan. The nose 
is fine or medium, the average indices running from 67-8 in 
the Tarim to 80-5 in the Hazara. Some individual indices 
are very high. “The one feature that strikes one is the por- 
tentous length of their noses. . . . There are no signs of that 
depression at the root of the nose and corresponding flatness 
of the cheek bones to which the appearance popularly de- 
scribed as Chinese or Mongolian is due. . . . Hazaras are an 
exception . . . it seems possible that they may partake of 
both types (Turko-Iranian and Mongolian) and represent the 
points of contact between the two.” 

The average stature varies from 162 in the Baloch of 
Makran to 172 in the Achakzai Pathan of Northern Baluchi- 
stan. Risley suggests that this type is the result of a mixture 
of Turki and Persian, and considers that their most marked 
features are the long hooked nose and the abundant hair and 
beard. 

The second type Risley has called Indo-Aryan. This type 


Henderson) may be of service. The term Kolarian was originally invented 
by Max Miiller. It has now been generally abandoned in favour of the term 
**Munda”’ from a conspicuous tribe. These people extend south as far as the 
Godavari on the east coast and are described by Henderson as “‘ distinctly 
Mongoloid in appearance.’’ Linguistically they are quite different from the 
Dravidian aborigines among whom they are found, but Grierson appears to 
have been misled about the nature of their language. There is some evidence 
that they are immigrants via Assam and the plain of Bengal from Tibet, 
Henderson comments on the fact that the division between them and the 
Dravidians is more than purely linguistic. 

* The ethnical relationships of these people has already been discussed in 
the last chapter. It is convenient, however, to consider Risley’s theory as 
a whole here. 


INDIA 125 


predominates in Rajputana, the Punjab, and the Valley of 
Kashmir, though in parts of this area it is associated with 
other elements. The head-form is invariably long, the average 
index varying from 72-4 in the Rajput to 74-4 in the Awan, 
and presents the greatest contrast with the cephalic index 
of the Turko-Iranian. In respect to the proportions of the 
nose there is little difference between the two types. The 
mean index ranges from 66-9 in the Gujar to 75-2 in the Chuhra, 
On the other hand, the Indo-Aryans, notwithstanding their 
greater stature, have noticeably shorter noses than the Turko- 
Iranians. Their faces are free from any suggestion of flatness. 
Their stature is the highest recorded in India, that of the 
Rajput 174-8 to 165-8 in the Arora. ‘‘The most important 
points to observe are the great uniformity of type and the 
very slight differences between the higher and the lower 
groups. Socially no gulf can be wider than that which divides 
the Rajputs of Udaipur from the scavenging Chuhra of the 
Punjab. Physically they are cast in much the same mould, 
and the difference in mean height... is no greater than 
might easily be accounted for by the fact that in respect of 
food occupation and habits of life the Rajput has for many 
generations enjoyed advantages telling directly on the develop- 
ment of stature.” 

The Indo-Aryans are described briefly as being tall, fair, 
but with dark eyes, bearded, long-headed with a narrow 
prominent nose. They are supposed to have immigrated in 
bulk through South-east Persia. 

The next type is the Scytho-Dravidian, who live in a belt of 
country on the west of India extending from Gujarat to 
Coorg. They are represented at one extreme by the Nagar 
Brahmans of Gujarat, and at the other by the remarkable 
people who have given their name to the little province of 
Coorg. The head-form varies from 76-9 in the Deshasth 
Brahman to 79-7 in the Nagar Brahman, and 79-9 in the 
Prabhus and Coorgs . . . “‘ the predominance of the broad- 
headed type is unmistakable.” Risley has no comment to 
make on the proportions of the nose. The indices vary from 
72:9 in the Coorg to 81-9 in the Mahar. The mean stature 
varies from 160 among the Kunbis to 168-7 in the Coorgs. 

This group differs from the Turko-Iranians in being shorter, 
having longer heads, higher noses, flatter faces. Risley 


126 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


associates them with the Sakai, and suggests that they came 
possibly from China. They occupied the grazing grounds of 
the Punjab and, finding their way blocked to the west by the 
Indo-Aryans, turned south and mixed with the Dravidians. 

The Aryo-Dravidian or Hindustani type extends from the 
eastern frontier of the Punjab to the extremity of Bihar, 
from which point onwards it melts into the Mongolo-Dravidian 
type of Bengal proper. It occupies the valleys of the Ganges 
and the Jumna, and runs up into the lower levels of the 
Himalaya on the north and the slopes of the Central Indian 
plateau on the south. ‘ The type is essentially a mixed one.” 

The head is long with a tendency towards medium. ‘‘ The 
average index varies from 72-1 in the Kachhi and Koiri 
of Hindustan to 76-8 in the Dosadh of Bihar and 76-7 in the 
Babhan, but it throws little light on the problem of their 
origin. 

The nose is the most distinctive feature. The average index 
runs in an unbroken series from 78 in the Babhan of Hin- 
dustan and 73-2 in the Brahman of Bihar to 86 in the Hindu- 
stani Chamar and 88-7 in the Musahar of Bihar. ‘‘ The order 
thus established corresponds substantially with the scale of 
social precedence independently ascertained. The height 
causes a similar conclusion. The range is from 159 to 166, 
whereas that of the Indo-Aryan is from 165-8 to 1748.” 

These people are supposed to have entered India by the 
Gilgit and Chitral passes, without women, and to be descended 
from Aryans in the male and Dravidians in the female line. 
They are long-headed but of short stature, and the bottom 
of the social scale is essentially platyrrhine, in other words, 
the lower classes have mixed more with the aboriginal type. 

The Mongolo-Dravidian or Bengali type occupies the 
delta of the Ganges and its affluents from Bihar to Bengal. 
This type is differentiated from the Indo-Aryan and the 
Aryo-Dravidian by its broad head. The mean index varies 
from 79 in the Brahman to 83 in the Rajbansi Magh. The 
mean proportions of the nose vary from 70:3 in the Brahmans 
and Kayasths to 84-7 in the Mals of Western Bengal, and 80 
in the Kochh. 

The stature varies from 167 in the Brahmans of Western 
Bengal to 159 among the Kochh of the sub-Himalayan region. 
This group Risley suggests has been formed by an extensive 


PLATE IV 





TAMIL WOMAN 


[ face p. 126 





7 = 7 ; - _ | } = 
ly si ; a "4 avs fj Ne ; a an fy Git 


INDIA 127 


mixing of Dravidian and Tibeto-Burman peoples. We have 
here no theory of an immigration but simply a mixing of 
aboriginal peoples, but this suggestion of a Tibeto-Burman 
aboriginal race in Bengal needs proof, which Risley does not 
supply. 

These two aboriginal peoples Risley classifies in this way. 
He finds the Mongoloid peoples along the Himalaya in an 
area which grows broader from west to east. The prevalent 
head-form is broad, but the mean indices show remarkable 
departures from this type; the Jaintia, for instance, have 
an index of 72. Risley suggests that possibly these variations 
are due to the small number of persons on whom observations 
were made. The nose-form has certain variations, but the 
higher indices come from those tribes among whom few people 
were measured. In the larger groups the mean index is 
67-2 in the Lepcha to 84-5 in the Chakma, and 86:3 in the 
Khasia. The Gurings have the tallest stature (169-8) and the 
Mirs the shortest (156-4). 

The face of these peoples is flat, the complexion dark with 
a yellowish tinge, there is very little beard, and the eyes are 
often oblique. 

Finally, the Dravidians are considered by Risley to be the 
true aborigines of the great Indian peninsula; they live in the 
oldest geological formation of India, the medley of ranges, 
terraced plateaux, and undulating plains which stretches 
roughly speaking from the Vindhyas to Cape Comorin. On 
the east and west of the peninsula area the domain of the 
Dravidian is coterminous with the Ghats,! while farther north 
it reaches on one side to the Aravallis and on the other to the 
Rajmahal Hills. Where the original characters have been 
unchanged by contact with the Indo-Aryan or Mongoloid 
peoples the type is remarkably uniform and distinctive. The 
head-form is usually medium, with a tendency in the direction 
of length. In South India the Badagas of the Nilgiri Hills 
have a cephalic index of 71-7 and the Shanans of Tinnevelly 
one of 76:6. In the same area the nasal index rises as high as 
95-1 in the Paniyans of Malabar. In Chota Nagpur and 
Western Bengal the range of variation is less well marked. 


' This statement of Risley’s is hardly correct, for the east coast fishermen 
(Jalari caste) extend north into the Orissa Bengal country, along the coast, 
which is a historic highway. 


128 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Among the Dravidians of South India the stature varies from 
170 among the Shanan of Tinnevelly to 153 among the 
Pulaiyan of Travancore. The complexion is very dark, the 
hair black and sometimes curly, the eyes are dark and there 
is sometimes a depression at the root of the nose. These 
people Risley considers to be true aborigines, now ‘“‘ modified 
in some degree by an infiltration of Aryan, Scythian, and 
Mongoloid elements.”’ 

Risley’s classifications have met with considerable criticism 
from various writers, and the subject is of such importance 
that it seems worth while to give a brief résumé of the main 
criticisms which have been directed against him. First, it has 
been suggested that it is difficult to believe that there was a 
movement of Aryan tribes into the Punjab who retained 
their physical type in spite of the numerous and almost con- 
tinual foreign invasions. Crooke has also suggested that Risley 
has, in dealing with this set of peoples, laid too much stress on 
the cephalic index, and that the Rajputs, for instance, contain 
other elements. A similar difficulty occurs with the Jats, a 
difficulty which Risley himself seems clearly to have been 
aware of. There is one type which is closest to what has been 
considered the traditional Aryan invader of India. These 
men are tall with a fair complexion and dark eyes, plenty of 
hair on the face, a low head and a narrow nose. Crooke meets 
the argument put forward by Risley that the Huns and the 
Scyths are brachycephalic, and could not have given rise to 
the Rajputs and the Jats, by suggesting that there is a Turki 
type in Central Asia which is possibly “‘ a modified Mongol ” 
(I am not quite sure exactly what the learned author means by 
this statement) and, secondly, that there are two types among 
the Tibetans, one a round-headed, flat-faced, oblique-eyed 
form, approximating to the pure Mongol from the Steppes 
(most of the “ pure Mongols from the Steppes ”’ have not got 
oblique eyes, but this, perhaps, does not affect the argument), 
and the other longer-headed with nearly regular features and a 
shapely long nose, approximating to the Tatars of Turkestan 
and the nomads of the great northern plateau. He would 
then maintain, further, that epigraphical evidence suggests 
that there is a considerable strain of northern blood among the 
tribes of the Punjab and Rajputana. Secondly, the Rajputs, 
Jats, and Gujars are ethnically akin, and their physical 


INDIA 129 


position depends upon social status, and he would maintain 
that the position of the Mahrattas is identical. Finally, 
Crooke suggests that it is inconsistent with the facts of 
tribal history to trace a Hun or Scythian element in the popu- 
lation of the Deccan. 

Again, some writers of the South Indian School maintain 
that there is a predominance of the Dravidian element in 
the present population, and suggest that there is a distinction 
not of race but merely of cult between the Aryan and their 
Dasyu predecessors. 

A further point of great importance which has been urged 
against Risley is that Thurston’s work shows that the Dravi- 
dian group is far from being uniform ; and Risley’s extension 
of the word, so as to include both the hill tribes of Central 
India and a large part of the menial population of the northern 
plains, has been objected to on the ground that recent 
linguistic researches have shown that there is a wide extension 
of the Mon-Khmer type of language across the Indian continent 
and that it even at one time extended to Further India and 
Assam. It has been suggested that this and not the Dravidian 
element survives in the menial population of the northern 
plains. 

In addition to these criticisms which are due to Crooke, 
Ramaprased Chanda has suggested in his book on the Indo- 
Aryan races that the broad-headed elements in both Risley’s 
Scytho-Dravidians and in his Mongolo-Dravidians are akin 
to “Homo Alpinus”’ of the type which is found to-day, as 
has been shown above, in the Pamirs. 

It will be seen that most of these criticisms, while attacking 
Risley in detail, do not on the whole tend to invalidate his 
general position with the exception of the last, which seems to 
deny the possibility of a Mongoloid element. There are good 
reasons, as I shall show later, for preferring Risley’s original 
hypothesis to that of his critic. 

Tt will be seen that on the whole the objections to Risley 
have been levelled rather at his nomenclature, or at his inter- 
pretation of historical facts, than at the actual grouping which 
he has suggested. In most places, though by no means every- 
where, the racial stocks date from before the historic period, 
and there is no reason to suppose that India is an exception 
to this general rule. Most of Risley’s terms, however, apply 

K 


130 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


to comparatively recent and historic peoples, and probably 
the main type of the Indian population was settled long before 
these historic movements took place. That there have been 
earlier peoples in India there is no doubt, and recently Dr. 
Hunt has presented to the University Museum in Oxford 
ancient crania from Secunderabad of a different type ap- 
parently from the modern population, but unfortunately they 
are in too bad a condition to be used as valuable evidence. It 
is clear, however, that the criticisms which suggest that Risley 
has not allowed sufficient weight to be attached to the different 
classes of the Dravidian population are of very great import- 
ance. It might further be added that the use of linguistic 
terms when applied to racial divisions is apt to be misleading, 
and Risley sometimes comes near to Max Miiller’s famous 
dictum of the brachycephalic dictionary. 

Unfortunately Risley’s figures were not reduced to a con- 
dition which would enable them to be used by modern 
statistical methods, and therefore I have only been able to 
work out constants in those cases which he describes as “ type 
series ’’ and gives the seriations of the measurements. 


TABLE = L 


STANDARD DEVIATION. CEPHALIC INDEX 
(CALCULATED FROM RiIsLEY’s TyPE SERIES) 











Standard Deviation = Under 3:0 3:0-4:0 Over 4:0 
Cephalic Index 1 EA ed bad bs 
Over 80 M. T.SD.SD.1.T.TSD: 
76-80 M. MD.D.D. — 
Under 76 MD.D.D.IA. D. — 
JA.AD.AD. 


Bnei a ene eS a ee 

M. =Mongoloid, T.=Turko-Iranian, SD. =Scytho-Dravidian, MD.=Mon- 
golo-Dravidian, D=Dravidian, IA.=Indo-Aryan, AD.=Aryo-Dravidian. 
Risley’s type series include several sub-groups, usually castes, within each 
“race.” Thus, for instance, among Scytho-Dravidians he gives as type 
series Nagar Brahman, Prabhu, and Coorg. 


This table shows the relation of the standard deviation of 
the cephalic index to the numerical value of the mean 


INDIA 131 


cephalic index, calculated from Risley’s type series of his 
various racial groups. It will be seen that the Turko-Iranians 
are all brachycephalic, and tend to have medium or big 
standard deviations, whereas the Indo-Aryans are long- 
headed and have small standard deviations. 


TABLE II 
STANDARD DEVIATION OF STATURE 


> eae Re acene a eae ce ee a ee ae ae 


Stature Under 4:7 4°7-5-4 Over 5:4 
Over 166 PAS T. IA.T.SD. 
161-166 AD.T.D. | MD.D.D.D.AD. SD.SD.MD. 
Under 161 D.M. M.M. — 





— Se eee eee 


The explanation is the same as Table I. Each letter is the 
initial of the group to which the sub-group belongs whose mean 
stature and standard deviation of the stature is given in the 
table. Altogether twenty such sub-groups are included. It 
will be seen that there is no particular relation between the 
stature and the standard deviation of the stature. 

Table I shows the relationship between the cephalic index 
of various groups and the standard deviation of this cephalic 
index, Table II shows the relationship between the stature 
of the same groups and the standard deviation of the stature. 
In the former case the relationship is considerable, in the 
latter it appears to be slight. There is no similar relationship 
in the case of the nasal index, the range and correlation of 
which will be discussed later. 

It would appear that on the whole the broader heads are 
more variable than the long heads, with the exception of two 
Mongoloid groups, Chakma and Lepcha, and to a lesser extent 
two of the Turko-Iranian groups. Even in the case of the 
exceptions there does seem to be a certain degree of correlation. 
It may therefore be reasonably suggested that the long- 
headed races are less mixed than the others. Such an inter- 
pretation would, however, overlook the possibility of long- 
headed invaders who, even though they belonged to a different 
group, would if they had a similar cephalic index to the race 
with which they mixed, not appreciably affect the standard 


132 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


deviation of the cephalic index, always provided that the 
mean cephalic index of both groups was not dissimilar. The 
introduction of a group with rounder heads would at once 
tend to increase the variation. On this basis we should expect 
that those groups which represented either a pure long-headed 
race or a mixture of two long-headed races would tend to have 
a low deviation. This we find to be the case in the “ Indo- 
Aryans,” in a few of the Dravidians, in some of the Mon- 
goloids, all of whom are said to be of pure race by Risley. In 
some of the Mongoloids the heads tend to roundness, but 
the deviation is small, but we have found that the tendency 
of Yellow man is to possess a round head, so that this fact 
need cause no surprise. 

The groups which show the greatest variation include a 
Scytho-Dravidian, Nagar Brahman, admitted by Risley to 
be of mixed race, and two Turko-Iranian groups, Jats and 
Mir Jats. It is clearly impossible to admit these as unmixed 
groups. The evidence of the cephalic index, which is less than 
would be expected in such a race, and the big standard 
deviation suggest that a mixing has taken place, not improb- 
ably a round-headed people and a long-headed. 

The groups with a medium variation include, first, some of 
the Turko-Iranians, and here again we may reasonably expect 
admixture, especially since, except in certain parts of Anatolia, 
the Armenoid race to which these people belong is usually 
very much mixed with other races. Secondly, one of Risley’s 
Mongoloid groups, the Chakma, is included in this division. 
They have a very high cephalic index, higher than is usual 
among Yellow man, and it seems possible that they should 
rather be considered as a mixture of Yellow man with the 
Armenoid type, a possibility which is not included by Risley 
in his grouping, but a type of admixture which is extremely 
common in Asia. Secondly, there are a series of groups which 
are admitted by Risley to be mixed and, finally, three groups 
of Dravidians. 

It should be noted that none of the Dravidians have a 
standard deviation over 8:5, and that therefore they all tend 
to be comparatively unmixed; but, as has been said above, 
some critics have declared that Risley has not paid enough 
attention to the possibility of sub-groups among the Dravi- 
dians. 


INDIA 133 


If we compare these results with that of stature, the results 
are of particular interest. Those which show the least variation 
are, with the exception of one, Aryo-Dravidian (Chamar) 
(United Provinces), all groups considered by Risley to be 
unmixed. Those with a great variation are considered by 
Risley to belong to mixed races, except one Turko-Iranian 
(Baloch), which we have shown might probably be considered 
as of mixed race, and one Indo-Aryan (Chuhra). 

It has already been suggested that in the latter case the 
mixing might not cause the cephalic index to vary if two 
dolichocephalic races mixed. In one case, however, that of 
the Chamar, an Aryo-Dravidian from the United Provinces, 
we have a striking indication of a pure type of race with 
little variation both in stature and in the cephalic index. 
The other races with big variation in stature are all con- 
sidered to be mixed by Risley. Of those with little variation 
in stature one, Chamar (United Provinces), is considered by 
Risley to be a mixed race, the others are considered to be 
unmixed. Some of the Dravidian groups, two of the Mon- 
goloid, and one of the Turko-Iranian, show a medium 
variation. 

These results confirm the suggestions made by Risley in 
many ways; they suggest, however, that more mixing has 
taken place than Risley seems inclined to suggest, especially 
among the Dravidians and among the Turko-Iranians. They 
suggest that on the whole the less variable groups are those 
which are long-headed, and those which are of short stature, 
but the evidence from our tables is stronger in the former case 
than in the latter. This being consistently true it seems 
reasonable to suppose that the earliest inhabitants who have 
left traces were short and long-headed, but that their short- 
ness was not so marked a feature as their long-headedness. 

As Risley has laid a good deal of stress on the nasal index, 
it seemed worth while to investigate whether the same held 
true of this measurement also. There is, however, no relation 
between the value of the nasal index and its variation. The 
nasal index is, on the other hand, correlated with certain 
climatic conditions. 

The general nature of this relationship has already been 
explained. In collecting data for the original paper, corre- 
lations were worked out on Indian data, and it was found 


134 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


that here, probably owing to the fact that the nasal indices 
were all taken in the same way, the correlation was higher 
than for larger groups collected from various authors. On 
the suggestion of my friend Professor Fleure, I also tested 
the relationship between the daily range of temperature and 
the nasal index. This, as was to be expected, is fairly high. 
A small range of temperature is associated with a broad nose. 
Such a correlation is the logical result of Thomson’s theory, 
because the daily range in hot moist climates is less than 
elsewhere. In India the greatest range of temperature is 
also correlated with the narrowest noses. This correlation 
serves to explain some of the exceptions to our general thesis. 
It will be remembered that I have suggested, following 
Thomson, that the narrow nose is an adaptation to cold and to 
dryness. The only way that it was found possible to estimate 
the cold for purposes of calculation was to take the annual 
means, obviously only a rough-and-ready method. By taking 
the daily range into consideration, we can at once explain 
some of the lower nasal indices which appear in what is a hot 
climate, if we measure by mean annual temperature, but which, 
at the same time, if measured by the daily range is obviously 
exposed at times to a cold temperature. 

The data then collected seem to indicate very clearly that 
in India the nasal index is to a certain extent independent of 
those characters which we may describe as racial, and is 
ultimately the result of response to environment. It must be 
remembered, however, that this response is by no means 
immediate, and that therefore certain types of noses are 
associated with certain racial types. It seems not improb- 
able that those peoples which have been longest in India have 
become most closely stabilized in equilibrium with their 
environment. We should expect to find, therefore, the broad- 
est noses among the lowest castes, among such people as the 
pre-Dravidians. This is an interesting comment on Risley’s 
dictum that among all the peoples, except the ‘‘ Mongoloid,” 
nose is a good indication of social status, the lowest castes 
having the broadest noses. On the whole also it will be found, 
though of course there are exceptions to this as to every other 
dictum about India in general, that the lower castes are darker 
than the upper; indeed, the very word for caste is merely 
colour, As it seems probable that colour is also related in some 


INDIA 135 


degree to environment, we should expect to find that among 
the aborigines, or at least the tribes who have lived longest in 
the hot and moist conditions which are found in so much of 
India, that the skin was dark and that the nasal index was 
high. In this way we can explain on simple grounds what 
appears at first to be an inexplicable phenomenon. 

We are now in a position to enquire into the racial stocks of 
India, and to try and link up these stocks with the other 
races of Asia. In the first place, there seems little doubt that 
at least two, if not three, of the great stocks of mankind are 
represented. First, the various branches of the stocks which 
I have called by the somewhat cumbrous title of races akin 
to those of Europe. These appear to form the greatest pro- 
portion of the peoples of India. 

Secondly, Yellow man is undoubtedly represented, especially 
in the north-east of the peninsula. How far he has travelled 
in relation to the whole sub-continent, from the gateway 
through which he entered, is at present uncertain. 

There seems no reason, with the evidence before us at 
present, to postulate the presence of a Negrito strain. It 
would be of great interest and importance if undoubted 
Negrito could be found in India. Some writers, basing their 
opinion very largely on the curly hair of some of the tribes 
of Central and Southern India, have maintained that there 
is certain evidence of Negrito blood. The dark colour of some 
of the tribes has also been put forward as a piece of evidence 
to support this thesis. Such a theory, however, seems 
unnecessary to explain the facts which can be accounted for 
on other grounds, it being quite certain that some of the races 
of Europe have curly hair. No people of pure Negrito blood 
have been found, as far as I am aware, in India, and until 
further archeological work reveals evidence of such a people 
it would seem better not to admit their presence in the area. 

We are left, then, with two different strains, ‘“‘ White” and 
“Yellow ’? man. Let us consider them in that order. I have 
given reasons above for suggesting that not only is there 
reason for suspecting a mixture in those races which are 
admitted by Risley to be mixed, but in some of those which 
he suspects of belonging to pure stocks. 

I have suggested, also, that the least mixed and earliest of 
the populations in India were long-headed and short, It 


136 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


seems not improbable that these people belong to a branch of 
the Brown race, although they must not be confused with later 
comers of this race. They seem to have been in occupation 
of Southern India long before the arrival of the mass of the 
people who speak Dravidian languages, and are classed with 
them by the great majority of ethnologists. The evidence 
for their earlier arrival is based on the fact that they are 
either jungle-dwelling tribes or the menials of the other 
Dravidian peoples. In addition to their short stature and 
long heads they have also very broad noses. Among these 
people we must include the people who are classed in the 
census as jungle tribes, and also some of the lower castes 
among the Kanarese and Telugu. 

Their skin is always dark and their hair tends to curliness. 
It is not, however, woolly, so that there is no reason to suggest 
that they have in them a Negrito strain. It has been suggested 
that they are possibly akin to the Melanesians, and indeed to 
the Tasmanians and other primitive peoples. These sugges- 
tions are pure speculations, and it seems better to adhere to 
the theory which I have put forward above that they are a 
very primitive form of the Brown race. Richards has called 
them Pre-Dravidian, not Proto-Dravidian (the italics are his), 
and suggests that they are an intermediate race. I should 
feel more inclined to describe them as the jungle peoples of 
South India, a descriptive if cumbrous title. 

These jungle peoples are in close accord with their geogra- 
phic environment, and have been in India a long time. It 
seems not impossible that they may be considered as the true 
aborigines, a close counterpart of the early non-Neanderthal 
people of Europe whom they resemble in many ways, but 
from whom they differ in their striking adaptation to the 
steaming climate of a tropical jungle. 

There is a second class of peoples who inhabit Southern 
India who are mostly dolichocephalic, although in some cases 
they have slightly roundish heads. They have narrower 
noses than the last-named peoples ; indeed, Richards has said 
colloquially but truly, “The jungle tribes begin where the 
rest leave off.” These people include such groups as the 
Malayalis, the Tamils, and the Telugus. They are also 
inclined to be short in stature, have very variable skin-colour, 
and wavy hair. That they differ from the jungle tribes is 


INDIA 137 


evident, but there is probably not a difference that can be 
considered absolutely fundamental. They appear also to be 
a branch of the Brown race, but they have, no doubt, been in 
India for a very long time, although there are suggestions in 
them of mixing with other races, probably both the jungle 
peoples and a round-headed race, who will be discussed later. 
Their castes are large and of relatively high social status, 
which gives the suggestion that they are-not the aborigines. 
It can only be suggested that they represent either invaders 
from the north, the backwash possibly of people akin to the 
jungle tribes, or else the refugees from Northern India, driven 
there by pressure on the arrival or increase of dominant 
populations in the north of similar stock, but differing from 
them in many particulars. Most but not all these Dravidian 
peoples show a fairly wide degree of variation, although the 
mixing which they have undergone has either been very 
slight or else is remote in time. If we sum up the evidence 
I think that we may conclude that the Dravidian peoples are 
representatives of the Brown race, who have changed to a 
certain extent in tropical environment, but who with their 
variable skin-colour and narrower noses suggest that the cradle 
of their race was not in Southern India, but at least in a semi- 
tropical or sub-tropical environment. 

In addition to these two sub-races there is in India a third 
group who are dolichocephalic and present certain features in 
common with the last two groups, but in others are widely 
separated from them. They are Risley’s Indo-Aryan. It is 
impossible here to discuss the exact meaning of the word Aryan. 
Modern research has abundantly proved that, whatever 
philological grounds there may be for supposing an Aryan 
language, there are none for supposing an Aryan physical 
type. The linguistic evidence seems to suggest that there 
were a series of cultural migrations probably through the 
Kabul Valley, and the habits of the Aryans have been studied 
through the evidence of the Rig Veda and the Yajur Veda. 
It appears to be somewhat difficult to correlate the linguistic 
and the cultural evidence. They seem to have had a contempt 
for the broad-nosed Dasyus, and Risley has said that the high- 
est castes to-day are still those with the narrowest noses. 
That they mixed with the other peoples of India is extremely 
probable, but how much they mixed is a more difficult 


138 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


problem. The Indo-Aryans are among the people who show 
the least variation, and are probably therefore the least 
mixed races. Some, however, of Risley’s Aryo-Dravidians 
are apparently equally unmixed, at least, on the evidence of 
cephalic index and stature, although we have already seen 
that in some cases the evidence is difficult to interpret. 

The chief characters of these peoples are long-headedness, 
combined usually with tall stature and narrow noses and 
often a comparatively fair skin. All these characters serve 
to distinguish them from the races we have previously been 
discussing, except the cephalic alone. It is worthy of remark 
that the stature, the colour and, to a lesser degree, the nasal 
index, serve also in Europe to distinguish the Nordic from 
the Mediterranean man. 

The problem is not dissimilar to that which faced us in 
dealing with some of the Steppe peoples in the last chapter. 
The solution is probably similar. There it was suggested 
that these tall, long-headed peoples might be described as 
Proto-Nordics. It seems difficult to link up Risley’s Indo- 
Aryan with any other group of mankind. It is true that 
there are certain differences between the Indo-Aryans and 
the peoples of the Steppes, but on the whole these are rather 
superficial than fundamental. The colour of the skin is, 
perhaps, the most striking feature. The Rajputs, however, 
are strikingly fairer than many of their neighbours and, as 
we have already seen, skin does appear to respond, at least 
to a greater or lesser degree, to the influence of geographic 
environment. 

The skeletal characters, as far as material is available, 
seem to point very conclusively to such a suggestion. It is 
not, however, entirely satisfactory perhaps to describe them 
as Proto-Nordics. They rather represent another branch of 
the same strain, of which the nearest kinsmen in Asia are 
those which we have mentioned, but until the whole question 
is more fully studied and a greater amount of skeletal 
material is at our disposal, it is hardly possible exactly to 
define the relationship of these various groups of tall long- 
heads. 

It seems probable that they entered India comparatively 
late. Although there is reason to suppose that their blood 
has been widely dispersed over the country, some of the 


INDIA 139 


peoples in the north have retained their physical characters 
to a very great extent. It is of great interest to note that 
they have some of the lowest standard deviations of the 
cephalic index and other measurements of any of Risley’s 
type series. It does not seem possible to interpret this true- 
ness to type other than by saying that they represent an 
unmixed race. Clearly, also, they cannot be described as 
being undifferentiated. It is for this reason among others 
that it seems hazardous to apply the word ‘“‘ Proto-Nordic ” 
to them without some qualification. They appear to be a 
pure-bred differentiated type which has penetrated into 
Northern India, probably at some early time, but possibly 
later than some of the round-heads, although it would appear 
certainly later than the Dravidian and Pre-Dravidian peoples. 
Their relationship to the Dravidians is a difficult question, 
but the distinction between them is clear. The distinction 
between the two rests on a relative fairness and a relatively 
narrower nose. 

It would seem, then, probable that apart from those 
peoples with a great variation in the cephalic index, we have 
at least three long-headed groups in India, though it seems 
doubtful whether we should be justified in giving them the 
name of races. There are the jungle and low-caste tribes 
of the south, whom I have followed Richards in calling 
Pre-Dravidian. They probably represent the first immigra- 
tion of members of the Brown race, and have probably 
every claim to be considered aborigines, though there are 
suggestions of an even earlier substratum in the population. 
Secondly, there are the Dravidian peoples, although the 
term must be used in a narrower sense than Risley gave to 
it. These are also related to the Brown race and probably 
represent a second immigration from the west. These two 
peoples seem to be ultimately derived from the same stock. 
Thirdly, and widely separated from the other two, we have 
the ‘“Indo-Aryans.”” These peoples are probably of the 
same stock as the Proto-Nordics, but their relationship at 
present is not clearly defined. 

The second great group of the peoples of India have 
round heads. There can be little doubt that they entered 
India at a very remote period, although it seems unlikely 
that they were the aboriginal population. It is possible, of 


140 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA s 


course, that they may have been the first to occupy certain 
areas, but probably over most of India the people who 
appear to have been the ancestors of the jungle tribes of 
to-day were the first comers. Dr. Hunt has found in ancient 
graves in Haidarabad examples of crania which belonged to 
this early race. He has been good enough to set his speci- 
mens at my disposal, but unfortunately they are too much 
eroded by time and sun and water to be of great anthropo- 
logical value. 

These groups, as they exist at present, all show evidence 
of considerable admixture. They are round-headed and of 
tall or medium stature. It seems not improbable that they 
belong to the Armenoid branch of the White race. The 
evidence, such as we have at present, suggests that they 
originally entered India at an early period, and it is more 
than probable that their first migration was sufficiently early 
for them to form a small but integral part of the Dravidian 
population. Subsequently it would seem as if there were a 
series of migrations of these peoples. It is otherwise difficult 
to account for their presence. In any case they have mixed 
considerably with other types either before they came to 
India or after or even during their arrival. The fact that 
they are found in their least mixed state in the north-west 
suggests that they entered from this direction and indeed, 
as we have already seen, this type can be found sporadically 
across the whole continent of Asia from Constantinople to 
Peking. They were at least a part of the population of 
Mesopotamia when Kish flourished as a city. It is some- 
what remarkable that in most places, excepting certain parts 
of Anatolia, these people always show considerable varia- 
tion, suggesting that almost everywhere they were late- 
comers who mingled to a greater or lesser degree with the 
aboriginal population. It seems probable that they represent 
the element in the population of India which has been called 
Scythian by Risley. Most of these latter groups are very 
variable in character, as a whole they are the most variable 
of all groups. They are also intermediate in character be- 
tween the long-heads and the short-heads and the peoples 
of tall and short stature. Their general physique seems to 
correspond with what might be expected of the mixture of 
two races who were already somewhat mixed. It is natural 


INDIA 141 


in a country where we have reason to suspect the presence 
of both Armenoid and Brown man that we should find in 
various degrees mixtures of these two peoples. 

The final type that we find represented on the continent 
of India is the Yellow man. The seriations suggest that he 
is found in some purity. He appears to be less mixed than 
many of the Dravidians and hardly more mixed than some 
of the Indo-Aryans. Yellow man represents a definite ex- 

ception to our dictum that the standard deviation of the 
cephalic index increases as the mean cephalic index increases. 
In their case the groups given by Risley as Mongoloid have 
only a small deviation. Those who are called Mongolo- 
Dravidian, who tend to have a rather narrower head, are 
more dolichocephalic. The peoples who are said to be 
Mongoloid have a small stature, and the Mongolo-Dravidians 
have a greater stature and an increased standard deviation. 
It would seem, therefore, as if the branch of Yellow man 
who penetrated into India were only moderately round- 
headed and of short stature, and belonged, in fact, to the 
Parecean branch of that great race. It has already been 
shown how extremely difficult it often is to distinguish on 
the basis of cranial measurements alone the difference 
between some types of Alpine or Armenoid and Yellow 
man, owing to the difficulty of finding a technique which 
shall show the exact form of the face, characteristic of 
Yellow man. It is therefore possible that we may have 
occasion to revise in detail some of the classes, but on the 
whole there can be little doubt that the distribution of Yellow 
man in India is on the general lines laid down by Risley, 
and that he penetrated India through the eastern border- 
land. The difficulty of access through these mountainous 
and forested regions no doubt prevented greater numbers 
from penetrating. For the most part there is little evidence 
that Yellow man mixed to any degree with other races before 
penetrating into India. It is, however, of importance to 
note that some of the most round-headed of the Mongoloid 
classes, as defined by Risley, are the most variable, suggest- 
ing that as in other parts of Asia there has been an ad- 
mixture of Yellow and Mongoloid elements. It is interest- 
ing to note that Risley says that among these people the 
nose is no indication of social status. This seems to be a 


142 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


clear indication of what might be gathered from the other 
evidence that the position of Yellow man in India is very 
different from that of the other races. The higher indices 
occur in the smaller groups and, as I have already pointed 
out, Risley considers that this may be due to the scantiness 
of the data. In any case, however, they show very wide 
variations, and often the indices seemed to be singularly 
at variance with climatic conditions often less easy to explain 
than the exceptions from other parts of India. Among those 
which are selected by Risley as typical examples, the Lepchas 
of Sikkim have the very low index of 70 and the Khasia the 
high one of 84. It seems possible that these varying indices 
may not improbably be ultimately correlated with geo- 
graphic environment. Most of these people live under the 
widely divergent climatic conditions which prevail in any 
mountainous area, but there is at present hardly sufficient 
data to enable one to give a final opinion on the subject. 
The small stature of this group is also possibly the result of 
geographic environment, comparing as it does so unfavour- 
ably with all the peoples of India, except the jungle dwellers 
who also are subject to singularly unsatisfactory natural 
conditions. 

It is noticeable that some of the peoples who are 
considered by Risley to possess other blood than that of 
Yellow man are less variable than some which he suggests 
are pure “ Mongoloid.”” The Kochh, for instance, have a 
standard deviation in the cephalic index which is hardly 
greater than that of the Andamanese. Owing to the fact 
that they have a long head, combined with certain characters 
which Risley considers to be Mongoloid, they have been 
considered a mixed race. With the possible exception, how- 
ever, of the Chakma with an unusually round head, all the 
peoples whom Risley describes as Mongoloid, and partly 
Mongoloid, show singularly little variation. The actual 
mean varies considerably. In other words, the variation of 
the cephalic index within the group is small, but the varia- 
tion within the Mongoloid class is very considerable. While 
therefore there is no reason to doubt Risley’s general dictum 
that there are representatives of Yellow man in India, it 
seems probable that when we have further data to hand we 
shall be compelled to revise somewhat his classification of 


INDIA 148 


these peoples, and for the present it is probably safer to 
disregard at least some of the classes which he has called 
Mongolo-Dravidian and to refer to them as being local 
variants of the type of the Parecean race. 

The exact extent of the Parecean distribution in India is 
at present uncertain. It is probably greater than Risley 
originally suggested. It has already been shown that there 
is reason to believe that the Munda-speaking peoples are 
linguistically related to some of the Parecean peoples. The 
work of Schmidt (V. 84) has shown a curious linguistic 
grouping of the Mundas, some of the Tibetan peoples and 
the Mon-Khmer peoples which is very suggestive. There are 
further indications, to which I already alluded, that the 
connection is not merely linguistic, and this point has been 
emphasized by Schmidt. Working from an entirely different 
point of view, Morant has come to not dissimilar conclusions. 
His terminology is somewhat unsatisfactory and obscures 
the real value of his conclusions. He suggests, using the 
coefficient of racial likeness, that there is linkage of the 
Dravidians with Hindus and Hindus with Nepalese. By 
this he means that the Maravar show a coefficient which 
relates them with the Bengali type. The latter are called 
by Risley Mongolo-Dravidian, and it seems from Morant’s 
work that we must admit a further Parecean strain among 
the so-called Dravidian tribes of the south. Further detailed 
studies yet remain to be made. At present the evidence 
seems to suggest that Parecean man is more widely dis- 
tributed in Southern India than had previously been supposed, 
and that he may, and indeed probably was, of great antiquity 
in this region. Additional importance is therefore attached 
to Hunt’s work in Haidarabad, and it will be interesting 
when he obtains more complete skulls to see whether they 
show any traces of Parecean characteristics, or whether they 
are western round-heads, as seems the easier solution at 
present. 

The population of Ceylon bears a close relationship to that 
of Southern India of which the island is really a disconnected 
part. The greatest interest to anthropologists has centred 
round the Veddas. The physical type is more widely scat- 
tered than the actual social ‘‘ nation”? which is now very 
limited in numbers, and appears to be widely spread in the 


144 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


island. It may be described briefly as follows. The stature 
is very short, with an average height of about 153 cms. 
(about five feet). The skin is a very dark brown, often 
approximating to black. The head is usually very small, 
long, and narrow, and there is often considerable restriction 
in the frontal area. The hair is coarse and wavy. The brow- 
ridges are often well-developed in the males, giving them 
a scowling appearance. There is often a considerable amount 
of body hair, especially on the chest. The people generally 
appear to be slightly built, and such of them as I have seen 
were slender but muscular. The nose is usually very broad. 
This type is quite distinct from the other peoples of Ceylon. 
It is in all probability to be connected with the Pre-Dra- 
vidian peoples of the mainland, from whom indeed it would 
be difficult often to distinguish them. 

Side by side with these people we find that a large majority 
of the population of Ceylon are clearly related to the Dra- 
vidians of Southern India, with whom they are also related 
linguistically. There is also another element in the popula- 
tion which Haddon believes is akin to what he describes as 
the Indo-Afghan, Risley’s Indo-Aryan, modified by contact 
with the Vedda. There appears to be little anthropological 
data on these people. They are certainly tall, long-headed 
and, in contrast to their dark-skinned neighbours, very fair. 
There is also a certain though not very great infusion of 
Moslem blood which appears in the main to have introduced 
an Armenoid admixture. 

Ceylon is, as it were, the very end of the road in Southern 
Asia, and it seems that we have here an admixture of most 
of the races which have at various times poured into India. 
There can be little doubt that the population is extremely 
mixed. I was not able to find any ancient trace of Parecean 
blood in the population. Morant thinks that there is a 
cranial linkage between the Veddas and the Maravar. His 
data on Ceylon is extremely scanty, and in any case such a 
linkage is to be expected. It can, however, hardly be used 
as evidence of any Parecean admixture, even though the 
Maravar people, on the evidence of forty skulls, are linked 
with the Bengali on the evidence of apparently under thirty. 

Before considering the eastern frontier of India, which 
presents some special problems, there remain the very 


PEATE V 





A VEDDA 


[ face p. 144 





INDIA 145 


interesting inhabitants of the Andaman Islands. These 
people, who have apparently been isolated from the rest 
of the world for a considerable time, present what is probably 
one of the few pure races in existence. They belong to the 
same Negrito type as the pygmy races of the Malay Peninsula, 
of the Philippine Islands, and of New Guinea. There also 
seem to be slight traces of these peoples elsewhere on the 
mainland. The curious fringing distribution is not unre- 
markable, and it seems more than probable that the Negritos 
had a much wider distribution. The Andamanese have 
short woolly hair which is black or sooty in colour, though 
like that of the Negrillos it is said sometimes to have a 
reddish tinge. The stature is under five feet, but the body 
is well proportioned, unlike that of pathological dwarfs. 
The head is brachycephalic, and the face is broad and rounded. 
The lips are full but not everted. The jaw is singularly 
ill-developed and the palate is very small. Only small 
series of measurements of these peoples have been pub- 
lished, and there are slight differences between the physique 
of the inhabitants of North and South Andaman. These 
differences are, however, of small moment. The standard 
deviations of the cephalic indices of both the males and 
the females of South Andaman, of whom fifty of each 
were measured and reported by Risley in the Census, is 
under 2 in each case. This low figure is very remarkable, 
and can hardly be accepted without further confirmation. 
If, however, it proves to be accurate, the very small variation 
of what is probably one of the purest of human groups is 
of great interest. As the figures for both the males and the 
females are almost identical it is probably correct. The 
corresponding figure for North Andaman is just under 8, 
a normal figure for a pure stock. 

The eastern frontier of India presents certain problems 
which are very different from those which we have met with 
previously. In all probability the same racial strains are 
to be found here as in the rest of India, but there seems to 
be no evidence of any Negrito blood. The political groupings 
of the peoples do not coincide with the physical strains, and 
probably so much mixing has occurred that it is difficult at 
present to distinguish the different types in any one group, 
although individuals often recall the various constituent 


L 


146 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


races. In the following analysis I have followed with one 
or two slight modifications the suggestions made by Haddon 
(I. 19, 116). 

Probably most of the races which we have found in India 
are here modified with a greater contact with the Parecean 
type than elsewhere; indeed, it seems as if this Parecean 
type probably penetrated into India by this way. The 
basal type, and probably the aboriginal, is the Pre-Dravidian, 
but there is no exact data on this point at present. It is 
found among many of the more isolated tribes. I am in- 
clined to think that this type spread into Assam from the 
south, but of this again there seems to be no evidence at 
present. Attention has already been drawn to the relation- 
ship, linguistically, of the Munda-speaking peoples with 
some of the Mon-Khmer tribes. They have a fringing dis- 
tribution according to Schmidt (V. 84), of which the 
epicentre is situated somewhere in the region now under 
discussion. If we associate a physical type with the lin- 
guistic, a hazardous proceeding, but one for which in this 
case there does seem to be a certain amount of evidence, 
although the language and the physical type are not always 
correlated, it would seem necessary to postulate a wide 
dispersion of these Pre-Dravidian peoples and some early 
contact or affinity with Parecean man, although they are 
for the most part dolichocephalic. The evidence of dark 
skins and broad noses suggests to me, although I admit that 
the evidence for this suggestion is at present not entirely 
conclusive, a continued residence at an undifferentiated 
period in a hot moist climate. 

But there have been other, and probably subsequent, 
immigrations. There is, especially among the Naga tribes, 
an element that is certainly akin to the Nesiot. It may 
probably be most easily distinguished from the Pre-Dravidian 
element by the lower value of the nasal index. I have already 
argued that this element probably represents the most 
eastern extension of strains which are akin to the Brown race. 
The third strain represented in Assam which is akin to the 
races of Europe is probably an outlier of the Alpine race, 
and is possibly a comparatively late arrival in the area, as 
people of this race contrast very strongly with those so far 
described as having narrow noses. They are apparently 


INDIA 147 


immigrants from the north, probably from the plateau, in 
the western part of which it has already been seen that they 
are widely distributed. Finally, there are a series of very 
different racial elements, some of which have been in 
Assam for a considerable period. They are all related to 
the Pareceans, but there are certainly two different types. 
The nose forms the best means of distinguishing between the 
two. The first is probably closely akin to the Kachin type 
in Burma, and is characterized by having a broad nose; it 
will be more fully discussed in the chapter dealing with 
Burma. The second does not occur in Burma, but is found 
among the Lepcha in Northern India, and also not infre- 
quently in Bengal. It is possible that this type is due to an 
early mixture of Parecean with other elements, or it may be 
a differentiated type of the same stock as the Kachins, 
possibly effected by long residence in a special environment 
There have, in addition to these types, been further and 
more recent immigrations from India which have introduced 
other types, notably one described by Haddon as dolicho- 
cephalic leptorrhine. This great mixture is, perhaps, the 
natural result of an environment where so many types of 
men coming from widely different strains have met at various 
times. 


CHAPTER VI 
CHINA 


HE Chinese Republic extends over an area which 

probably exceeds 4 million square miles, and has a 
population within the boundaries of China proper of 400 
million. Parts of it have already been discussed, others will 
form the subject-matter of subsequent chapters; here I 
propose to discuss Old China proper, that is, the eighteen 
provinces, and to exclude the three eastern provinces of 
Manchuria and the New Dominion of Chinese Turkestan, 
which the Chinese call Sinkiang, and Mongolia and Tibet, 
over the two latter of which states the Chinese claim a 
varying amount of authority. Except for a small tongue 
of land at the north end of the Gulf of Liao Tung, China is 
bounded on the east by the sea. In the north part this has, 
on the whole, formed a boundary which does not appear 
to be traversed very frequently, except, possibly, at an early 
period. Chinese influence, however, certainly extended from 
early times eastward through the ‘“‘ Korean gate,” and either 
by sea or land, as we shall see later, Chinese influence both 
cultural and ethnical reached Japan. 

The southern coast has, however, had a different history. 
Within historic times, and possibly before, Chinese sailors 
have pushed continually into the islands, and to-day they 
form an increasing element in the population, most of the 
immigrants coming from the southern coastal provinces. 

The northern boundary of China has always been ill- 
defined. It may be described in general terms as the Gobi. 
The actual position of the boundary has varied from time 
to time; we may probably take the ethnical boundary as 
being the mountain line, fortified et arte et natura, whereon 
the Great Wall runs. Further to the west, in the Province 
of Kansu, the desert forms approximately the ethnical and 
actual boundary. 

The west is guarded by mountains and desert, and the 

148 


CHINA 149 


southern boundary, the escarpments from the plateau of 
Yunnan and Kwangsi, will be found discussed in the chapter 
dealing with South-eastern Asia. 

Parts of the northern boundary are but sparsely inhabited 
and the regions are hard to cross, but the region north of the 
great plain of China lies open to migrating peoples. It is 
certain that through the neck of land between the Ordos 
bend of the Hwang Ho and the sea, China has at various 
times received considerable northern influences, Mongol and 
Tungus. It was hence also that her greatest conquerors 
came, the Mongols and the Manchus. It is doubtful, how- 
ever, whether their advent, so late as it was in the racial 
history, had any very important ethnical influence. 

The North-West Frontier is of the greatest interest, because 
it is along this difficult road that invaders from the west 
entered China in early times. It is even possible, as some 
writers have suggested, that it was by this road, north of the 
Nan-Shan, that the Chinese themselves entered China after 
having learnt the difficult arts of agriculture in the oases of 
the Tarim. Too much stress cannot be laid, however, on 
the broad belt watered by the streams which flow from the 
Nan-Shan and the Tien-Shan, as this belt forms the most 
strategic point ethnically in the whole of Eastern Asia, and 
affords a means of communication between China and Kas- 
garia and Dzungaria. The actual details of the road must 
be discussed later in dealing with the ethnology of Chinese 
Turkestan and Tibet. 

The frontier between China and Tibet is probably of no 
great importance to the student of Chinese ethnology, 
although there have been ancient roads. 

The frontier between Burma and China belongs more 
properly to the ethnological history of Eastern Asia, 

The physiography of this vast area is naturally com- 
plicated, but for our present purpose it is convenient to 
divide China proper into three parts, the basin of the Hwang 
Ho forming the centre with uplands lying to the north, and 
to the south the Yangtze basin and the complicated moun- 
tainous area south of it.+ 


1 This division is ethnological not physiographic; Roxby has recently sug- 
gested (Geogr. Rev., 1925, XV.4) what he describes as the “‘ provisional natural 
entities ’’ of China, of which he suggests 15. When more detailed ethnological 
data are available these should prove of the greatest service. 


150 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


The northern uplands form a series of escarpments, lead- 
ing down from the high plateau of Mongolia. Here the 
ethnic and the geographical boundaries do not always 
coincide. The geological strata underlying these uplands 
are horizontal carboniferous rocks, which form, as it were, 
a series of steps, on the greatest of which for the most part 
the Wall is built. The area is much cut by rivers, and in 
places is covered by loess. Owing to its nature, it forms an 
area which invites invasion through it on to the plains. To 
the north lies the plateau of Mongolia, to the south the 
escarpments look down on to the plains, approach to which 
can be gained through various defiles. These uplands are 
connected geologically with the Shantung group of hills, 
which rise like islands out of the plain and some of which 
form the peninsula of Shantung. 

The plain has long since separated these outlying and 
isolated hills from their parent ranges. This plain, which 
includes the Hwang Ho and part of the Yangtze Kiang 
basins, is undoubtedly the most important feature in Northern 
China. It forms a great triangle, the apex being to the 
north of Peking, at which city the plain is about 120 miles 
broad, and the base is the Yangtze Kiang from Shanghai to 
Ichang. It may be described as the delta of the two great 
rivers, the Hwang Ho and the Yangtze Kiang, although this 
description is not perhaps entirely satisfactory from a geo- 
graphical point of view. This plain does not, however, form 
a single ethnological unit ; the northern part—the basin of the 
Yellow River—forms the old home of the Chinese, the southern 
part—the Yangtze basin—divided from the north by the 
Tsin Ling range differs in many respects. This southern 
area formed the old kingdom of the Sungs. It was not, 
however, entered by the Chinese until they were driven 
south by pressure from the north. Between Hankow and 
Ichang this southern part of the plain is actually cut off from 
the rest of the plain by the Huai Mountains, which form out- 
liers of the southern uplands in the same way that the Shan- 
tung Mountains are outliers of the northern. 

The Hwang Ho basin includes the provinces of Kansu, 
Shensi, Shansi, Chihli, Honan, and Shantung. Not only does 
it differ from the southern part ethnologically, but in climate 
and food production it is characteristically different from 


CHINA bot 


the rest of China. Rice is the favourite food of all who can 
afford it, but it is not grown in any quantity, the chief grains 
being wheat and millet, and other dry grains. While the 
characteristic soil is loess, the Hwang Ho brings down 
enormous quantities of silt, which owing to the erratic habits 
of rivers are deposited over wide areas. The river bursts its 
banks at intervals and causes widespread desolation and 
famine, but in the detritus thus scattered over the land the 
Chinese, after a short interval, plant and grow rich crops 
and again establish a large population. The country is, 
however, dependent on the rainfall for its crops. The mean 
temperature is moderate, although Northern China is apt 
to be very hot in the summer and cold in the winter. 

The Yangtze valley, on the other hand, is almost sub- 

tropical. The country is well watered and luxuriant. The 
river flows for the most part over a hard bottom. The con- 
ditions, therefore, make for a different type of life and of 
manners, and it would appear also a slightly different physical 
type. 
Although the forest country of the southern uplands is 
very different in appearance from that of the northern part 
of the Yangtze basin, it is hardly possible to separate the 
two ethnologically, and the interest from that point of view 
lies chiefly in the correlation between the physiography and 
the distribution of physical types. 

Briefly, the southern uplands may be described as follows. 
They may be divided into three folds. Along the north 
boundary the folds turn from west by north to east by south. 
In the south the direction of the folds is from west-south-west 
to east-north-east, becoming in the south more southerly 
and in the north more northerly. These folds are of the 
greatest importance in considering the topography of Southern 
China. In the west there is a series of folds which contrast 
strongly with the last-named, for whereas these are old, low, 
and broken up, the southern folds are of more recent forma- 
tion. Owing to the habit of rivers of eating back into their 
watershed and at times capturing the supplies of other 
streams, these folds have resulted in what is a very com- 
plicated series of uplands. 

They may be conveniently divided into three areas, follow- 
ing the three main folds. In the north there is a series 


152 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


of lofty mountains which still retain, for the most part, their 
original valley forms. The principal ranges are the Nan- 
Shan, north of which runs the road to Kashgaria. Secondly, 
south of the Wei River runs the Tsing-ling Shan, the eastern 
continuation of which forms the boundary between the 
rivers. At the eastern end of this range, between it and the 
Fu-niu Shan, a depression has been formed owing to a fault. 
This gap is of the greatest importance, as through it runs 
one of the western roads, that from Siangyan to Sian. 
The depression which separates the Fu-nui Shan from the 
Huai Shan is also traversed by a pass, that from Siangyan 
to Kaifeng. 

In the second area it has been shown that the greatest 
destruction of the old valleys has taken place. The details 
are not necessary for our present purpose. The most im- 
portant fact to notice is the deposition of a reddish clayey 
material, which in places forms an irregular plain. Such soil 
is very fertile and often supports a big population. The 
most important areas of this type are the red basin in Eastern 
Szechuan and part of Eastern Yunnan. 

In the third area the folds form a series of valleys which 
trend from north to south. The rivers run in narrow gorges, 
although in some cases a certain amount of capturing has 
taken place. 

Much of this southern and mountainous region has formed 
the homes of aboriginal, or at least non-Chinese tribes, who 
have been able to survive in the mountains long after the 
Chinese had occupied the plains. The very complicated 
nature of the river valleys has made them of little use as 
highways and prevented the spread of peoples by this usual 
route. The nature of the plains and of one or two specially 
favoured areas is such that they have frequently had a 
surplus population. The general trend of the people has been 
in a southerly direction. To the west there was little to 
attract in the high tableland. To the south there was an 
outlet toward the various river valleys and the coastal plain. 
The population seems to have followed this possibility of 
outlet. 

In this way the Chinese, or people allied to them, have 
spread, especially into the coastal plain of what is now French 
Indo-China and, it would appear, into the valley of the 


CHINA 153 


Ganges. They have also spread and are still spreading into 
the Dutch Indies. 

It is difficult to sum up the movements which have taken 
place within this wide area. Generally speaking, however, 
it may be said that in the north geographical conditions 
have been such as to encourage movements towards the 
interior of the plain, whereas in the south the movements 
seem, on the whole, to have been centripetal. 

The early history of China is, as I have shown on page 74, 
entirely unknown. It is impossible to say who were the 
original inhabitants of much of the area, although certain 
tribes exist to-day which, as will be seen, have good claim 
to be considered aborigines. But they, for the most part, 
have survived only in the mountainous areas, and all trace 
of early people in the plains has been lost. 

The most important research which has been made has 
been already alluded to. Dr. Andersson has found traces 
of a culture which is without doubt chalcolithic and clearly 
connects with Anau. Traces of this culture have been 
found in Honan and as far east as Fengtien. The exact 
chronological position of this culture cannot at present be 
determined. We must presume a migration of culture from 
the west, probably along the road north of the Nan-Shan, 
which has already been described. This culture cannot at 
present be associated with any definite people, as such 
remains as have been found are considered by Black to be 
of the same type as the modern Northern Chinese. In any 
case it would not be reasonable to look for the origins of the 
Chinese people at so late a date, which in Fengtien may even 
be after the beginning of the second millennium B.c. 

We know that this culture was widely spread in the Tarim 
basin, and it is possible that the historical grounds which 
suggested that the origin of the Chinese people was in that 
region may be rather a reflection of the migration of this 
culture, which is now known by archeological evidence to 
have taken place, rather than a real valid suggestion of origin. 

At present, however, it is impossible to express any views 
on the early racial history of the Chinese, from the point of 
view of somatology. We can, however, say that in China, 
in chalcolithic times, there lived a people who were of a 
physique like the Chinese to-day, but who were characterized 


154 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


by a different culture. It has been suggested by another 
school that we should rather find the origin of the Chinese 
in the south. On somatological grounds it is equally impos- 
sible at present to combat this theory. It is, however, of 
importance to note that the distribution of the Chinese type 
is much greater in the south than in the north, and that it is 
not found in an unmixed state north of the basin of the 
Yellow river and, indeed, here it seems to be very much 
mixed with other peoples. 

The relationship of these peoples to the Alpine race is 
also a matter on which we have at present insufficient 
evidence. It seems probable that there have been at 
times intrusive elements, of a strain akin to true Alpine 
and, in the north, Nordic or Proto-Nordic, into China; 
but here again we have no evidence of a physical nature, 
and in these questions cultural evidence is likely to prove 
a somewhat doubtful guide. Summing up, then, the 
evidence in regard to the early Chinese it must be admitted 
that at present we have none, and that all our reasoning 
on the nature of the inhabitants of this great part of Asia 
must be limited to a discussion of the characters of the 
modern people. 

The flag of the Chinese Republic claims to typify with its 
five colours the five races of China, the Chinese, the Manchus, 
the Mongols, the Tibetans, and the Moslems. At first sight 
the basis of division is unsatisfactory. It forms, however, a 
very convenient starting-point for a study of the races of 
China. The Manchus and the Mongols will be described in 
the chapter (page 177) dealing with the area which formed 
their home. The Tibetans also form an entirely separate 
problem. There remain the Moslems, classed on the ground 
of their religion, and the Chinese proper. 

No place has been found on the Chinese flag for the 
aborigines. They form, however, a very interesting group 
which has at present been little studied (VI.1). They are 
usually classified by the Chinese as follows. There are four 
divisions, the Man, the T’u, the Miao, and the Yao. These 
names are not very satisfactory. The Man—the Chinese 
word is more or less the equivalent of the Greek word 
barbaros—are said to include the Black Miao, the Meng 
Chia, the Chung Chia or Ih, and other tribes. The word 


CHINA 1855) 


T’u means earth or native, practically autochthonous ; it is 
applied in different places to the Chung in Kwangsi and 
Kweichow, and to other peoples in Kansu and the north- 
west. The word Miao means plant or shoot, and again 
practically means autochthonous ; it is used of the so-called 
Flowered races, Black, White, and Red, near Anping, the 
Ch’ing Kehtu, and others. Yao is a dog name, not neces- 
sarily a disgrace in Eastern Asia. In Kweichow it is applied 
to an itinerant race of tinkers; people who are called by this 
name are also found in Kwangsi and in parts of Kwangtung. 

This classification which I have given, because references 
to it will be found both in Chinese and European writers, is 
too artificial to be satisfactory, and it is more usual and con- 
venient to divide the aborigines, at least in Kweichow, 
Szechuan, and Kwangsi North, into three classes—the Miao, 
the Lolo, and the Chung-chia. There are also some other 
tribes who probably belong to one or other of these groups. 
They include the Limen of South Kweichow, the Beh-gen of 
Kwangsi and South Kweichow, and the Bin-muh of North- 
east Kwangsi. 

The distribution of these peoples is approximately as 
follows. There are Black Miao and Chung-chia in Hunan, 
and there is a mention of aborigines in the annals of the 
City of Changteh, near Tungting Lake. The real home of 
the Chung-chia is, however, from Hunan across the southern 
part of Kweichow and southern Yunnan into Annam and 
Burma. They are known by various names, of which the 
most important is T’ai in Burma. 

North of these peoples live the Black Miao. They inhabit 
a belt about 80 miles broad across the south of Kweichow 
between Anshun and Hingi, from the Hunan border on the 
south bank of the Yuan river almost to Yunnan. They claim, 
and there is reason to believe their claim can be substantiated, 
to have come from Kiangsi. 

The two classes of Flowered Miao inhabit a somewhat 
semicircular tract in West Central Kweichow and North- 
east Yunnan, but extend even as far as the Kwangsi border. 
These people who have been detailed above appear to be the 
only ones who to-day inhabit a definite area. 

The general distribution of the aboriginal tribes is, how- 
ever, much wider. The Black Lolo probably came from 


156 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Burma in isolated groups. They are called ‘‘ Black’ be- 
cause of the darkness of their complexions. In the Chinese 
pictures, it is interesting to note, they are always associated 
with horses, an association which occurs in few other tribes. 
In the third century a.p. they became the ruling class over 
the Flowered Miao and the White Lolo, or Miao. They may 
be found in the prefecture of Hingi, and in the districts of 
Hsin-ts’eng and Chinfeng Chow, and also in the prefecture 
of 'Tating where the White Lolo are numerous, and in the 
west of the prefecture of Anshun. They occur in South-east 
Yunnan, where they are called Nosu, and in other parts of 
that province. They are most numerous in an independent 
state in Szechuan. 

These opinions are those expressed by Jamieson, who has 
collected and arranged the various scattered pieces of in- 
formation on this very puzzling question. T’ing (VI. 3), 
of the Chinese geological survey, appears to take a rather 
different view. He believes that “historically the Lolos, in 
association with the Ch’iangs, formed an important people 
in North-west Szechuan, Kokonor, and South Turkestan. 
In the last place they intermarried with the Iranian people 
known as Yuehchi. The Iranian element may have found 
its way into the Lolos through the Ch’iangs.” 

T’ing’s anthropological work in Yunnan seems to have 
been the most recent and, indeed, one of the few attempts 
which have been made to secure physical data from these 
people. He declares that the “Iranians were certainly 
dolichocephalic,” and on the basis of this assumption links 
up the Lolos with these peoples. There seems, however, to 
be no doubt that T’ing is using it in the same sense as Ripley. 
The few measurements which T’ing was able to secure bears 
out this supposition. He refers to the fact that travellers 
have noted tall stature, fair skin, and more regular features, 
which suggest ‘“non-Mongolic” characters. His own 
measurements, however, suggest that the stature on the 
whole tends to be short. The most remarkable feature is 
the extremely small size of the head and the very low 
cephalic indices. The head tends to be both absolutely and 
relatively narrow, and absolutely short but relatively long. 

Such indications as we have at present, then, suggest that 
among the aboriginal tribes of Western China we have a 


CHINA 15% 


type which corresponds to the long-headed populations of 
Western Asia and to the Mediterranean area, corresponding 
to Elliot Smith’s Brown race. It appears to form a link 
between the west and the Nesiots, who also possess the same 
characters. There are some indications that among a number 
of these aboriginal tribes the main influence was from the 
west, but suggestions are not lacking that at least some 
of them came from the south. This is quite possible from 
the point of view of physique, as we shall see that a sensible 
proportion of the inhabitants of South-eastern Asia also 
belong to this type. They are all mixed to a greater or lesser 
degree with the Parecean stock, such peoples as, for instance, 
the Chin-miao of Yinach’ang, Wuting, probably representing 
an intermediate type. 

Their presence in Yunnan is of special importance, as it 
provides what appears to be an ancient link between the 
Brown and the Nesiot stocks. 

There is a second class of aborigines living more to the 
east. It is probable that they should rather be considered 
as non-Chinese, for their present homes have only been 
occupied by them for a comparatively short time. They 
include the Hakkas and the Punti. 

The Hakkas, whose name means foreigners or new-comers, 
are found principally in Kwangtung and in Kwangsi, but 
they occur in small and somewhat scattered groups in 
Fukien, Kiangsi, Chekiang, and even in the islands of For- 
mosa and Hainan. It seems clear that they originally 
inhabited Shantung, Shansi, and Anhui. In the third 
century B.c. they were driven from Shantung, and over 
six hundred years later they were driven further south into 
the mountains of South-east Kiangsi and the border of 
Fukien province. Later they were again driven into the 
mountains, this time still further south into the Fukienese 
Mountains and the ranges between Kiangsi and Kwangtung. 
Finally, in the fourteenth century, they were driven from 
Fukien and eventually settled in the north of Kwangtung. 
They spread to the south-west of that province and also 
into Kwangsi.} 


1 The tribes of the mountain regions near Foochow are identified by some 
with the Hakkas. A recent writer (Woods, in China Journal of Arts and 
Science, 1925, III. 1) calls them San Tak, the name I obtained was Tse Li; 
they are also known locally and less politely as the Po-tse gen. 


158 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 

At present we have few anthropological data on these 
peoples. Some of the groups, though they have a culture 
which differs in many respects from that of the Chinese who 
. surround them, have intermarried so much with the Chinese 
that the original type has been practically swamped. In 
other cases it seems probable that the original type can be 
ascertained. It appears that here also we must link them 
up with the Brown race, but in a somewhat different manner 
from most of the western aboriginal tribes. Here we have 
no link which stretches across Asia, but probably an exten- 
sion of the Nesiot influence along the periphery of Eastern 
Asia, the people having reached their present habitat by 
being driven again to the south. 

Among representatives of these peoples in Fukien province 
I was much struck by the smallness of their stature, which 
I was inclined to ascribe to the unsatisfactory conditions 
among which they lived. Their villages were often in com- 
paratively remote parts of the mountains, and they appeared 
to be suffering from the effects of an inadequate diet, rather 
like the ‘‘ misery spots ’’ which Ripley refers to in France. 
The smallness of stature among the mountaineers was not 
confined to the non-Chinese, but affected the Chinese hillmen 
equally, and may probably be considered not a racial char- 
acter but as the direct result of environment. It is possible 
that the shortness of stature among some of the Lolos, to 
which I referred above, may be due to similar causes. 

These aborigines and alien tribes are all that is left of the 
early inhabitants of China. It seems improbable that China 
was inhabited in paleolithic times. Up to the present, in 
spite of the large number of implements which have been 
discovered, there do not seem to be any which can be certainly 
attributed to any period earlier than the neolithic, although 
the country has not yet been systematically explored and 
its prehistoric archeology is not as yet fully known. 

There can be little doubt that there was a very advanced 
neolithic culture in China. Of the inhabitants during the 
early part of this period we have at present little information 
(VI. 7). Towards the end of neolithic times we have 
abundant traces of a culture which without actua'ly pos- 
sessing, as far as we know at present, any bronze, seems to 
be undoubtedly reminiscent of bronze technique in many 


CHINA 159 
particulars. The pottery is very reminiscent of the Anau 
wares and probably represents an extension of this or a 
similar culture to the east. It is, however, of great interest 
to note that such skeletons as have been excavated so far 
do not differ from the present inhabitants of the same area. 

The evidence suggests, therefore, that we are wrong in as- 
sociating the term Chinese with any physical type, it is 
rather linguistic and cultural. But the culture has become 
so bound up with nationality, and in modern times also 
with apparently certain physical types, that it is difficult 
to distinguish them with our present knowledge. 

It has been suggested that it is impossible to distinguish 
physically the Chinese Moslems from their Chinese neigh- 
bours. As far as I am aware very little data has been col- 
lected on this subject. They may be conveniently grouped 
into three classes, by their origin and manner of speech, 
Turki Moslems, Mongol Moslems, and Arab Moslems. The 
second class need not concern us here. I have had no 
opportunity of observing the Turki Moslems in Kansu, where 
they form a considerable and very turbulent part of the 
population. There are, however, numbers of these Moslems 
in Peking. They form a very striking contrast to the 
ordinary Chinese. Although there can be little doubt that 
they have intermarried very considerably with the Chinese 
at various times, they preserve their original type in 
many particulars. They have a better developed pilous 
system and their beards are usually well developed. Their 
heads are very round and often flat behind. It seems that 
in general they represent a cross between the Alpine or 
Armenoid and Yellow man. A good example of this type 
can be seen in the frontispiece. 

There are in addition to the Turki Moslems, at least in 
Peking and Tientsin, a number of Arab Moslems. In 1922 
they claimed that there were as many as thirty-two thousand 
families. These people are certainly very commonly en- 
dogamous. They proselytize very little, although they do 
make a few converts. They adhere strictly to the tenets 
of their religion, a fact which necessitates endogamy, as they 
cannot enter an ordinary Chinese house where pork forms 
such an important part in the domestic economy. They 
also seem to be distinguished chiefly from the Chinese by the 


160 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


greater development of the pilous system. A curious char- 
acter which these Moslems possess, which shows a racial 
feature, they are in the habit of cutting the moustache, an 
operation which is often not necessary and as far as I am 
aware not practised by the Chinese. 

These people claim to have been in China since the Sung 
Dynasty. They still preserve the Arabic tongue and their 
old racial characters. They claim to have come from Arabia. 
How far this claim is correct I am unable to say. In any 
case they appear also to belong for the most part to the 
Armenoid race, or more probably a mixture of the Armenoid 
and the Mediterranean races. They have acquired a few 
Chinese characteristics, but on the whole differ considerably 
from them. Some cases occur where there is a fold over the 
internal canthus of the eye, but this is by no means general. 
They have an intermediate brownish-yellow colour. They 
unfortunately would not submit to measurement. On the 
whole these Arab Moslems have become more absorbed in 
the general population than have their Turki co-religionists. 
Both, however, appear, as I have suggested, to show close 
relationships with the tribes of Central Asia. 

There is a further and very interesting element in China 
which is undoubtedly alien, the Jews of Kaifeng. These 
have on the whole become absorbed in the Moslem popula- 
tion, and in any case they are hardly sufficiently numerous 
to warrant them being considered an element in the popu- 
lation. 

These various alien elements in the population of China 
represent a very small and unimportant element. Although 
the Nesiot type can claim to be of ancient standing they 
live in the more remote and less accessible regions. The 
other peoples are for the most part recent intruders. The 
Chinese themselves remain to be considered. I have already 
shown that there is at present no direct information as to 
their origin. The data on them also is extremely scanty, 
and at present any opinions which are put forward cannot 
be considered as more than tentative. 

Before proceeding to consider the differences between the 
different groups of Chinese it is important to recall that, as 
I have suggested above (page 57), the differences between 
the Chinese and the European types is considered by some 


CHINA 161 


authors not to be fundamental. The form of the calvaria 
is not different but, on the other hand, the face presents 
certain striking divergencies. The hair, the eyes, and the 
colour of skin have been considered by most authors, from 
the seventeenth century onwards, to be distinctive racial 
characters. The bony framework underlying these struc- 
tures presents, however, characters which in the opinion of 
some at least do not serve to differentiate them. 

Unfortunately, owing to the social customs of the Chinese, 
it is extremely difficult to obtain much skeletal material 
and comparatively little has found its way to this country. 
Owing also to the difficulties which in the past have attended 
such work in China, comparatively few measurements have 
been made. There is therefore hardly an area of equal size, 
or so great a population, of whom it can be said that somato- 
logically there is so little evidence. 

The largest series of Chinese crania which has been published 
is, as far as I am aware, that described by Morant in the 
paper to which I have already referred (I.14). He is not 
inclined to lay much stress on the difference between the 
Northern and the Southern Chinese, but his southern material 
was not well documented and is therefore not entirely con- 
elusive. In regard to the general position he has, by using 
the coefficient of racial likeness, come to some very interest- 
ing conclusions in regard to the relations of the Chinese. He 
first draws attention to the fact that they represent on the 
whole a single ethnic unit, although they include a very 
large number of individuals, a position which would probably 
be generally conceded. This racial position of the Chinese 
has long been their peculiar pride, a pride more justified 
on somatic grounds than the similar claim made by the 
Hellenes. 

Morant believes that the Southern Chinese link up in three 
directions, other than their linkage with the Northern 
Chinese. First, they are connected to what he has described 
as Tibetan A. This type will be more accurately described 
later; it is called by Sir William Turner the priestly type of 
Tibet. Secondly, they are linked with the Annamese. The 
latter people have possibly mixed with other elements, but 
as will be seen physically they are hardly to be distinguished, 
except as a local race, from the Southern Chinese. 

M 


162 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


T'o the noith Morant links the Southern Chinese with the 
Japanese, a theory that is more conveniently discussed in 
dealing with the Japanese. Finally, the Northern Chinese 
are linked with the Koreans. 

One of the most interesting points which has emerged 
from the use of the coefficient of racial likeness is the further 
suggestion that there is an element among the Northern 
Chinese which shows affinities with the Khams Tibetans— 
Turner’s Warrior Tibetan class. Morant reserves judgment 
on this point, admitting that a very few Tibetan skulls 
might have affected the coefficient, but the point is worthy 
of further consideration when evidence is available. 

Morant suggests that the Chinese as a whole belong to the 
general series of Oriental races, with the exceptions which I 
have described above. The aberrant Northern Chinese are 
considered by Morant to differ from the normal Chinese type 
in the length of the face, the relation of this length to the 
breadth of the skull, and the length of the palate. To a lesser 
extent they differ in the bizygomatic breadth, the trans- 
verse are taken through the auricular points and the greatest 
length of the skull, that is to say, they differ both in facial 
and calvarial measurements. No suggestion is made as to 
the possible meaning of these differences, and whereas it 
would be expected that we should find possibly some relation 
with the northern tribes, which does not appear to exist, 
the linkage not only with the normal Tibetan but also with 
this aberrant type is somewhat unexpected. Possibly both 
types are more widely spread in Central Asia than the sug- 
gestion of Turner, who was originally responsible for differen- 
tiating the two types would lead us to believe. 

Shirokogoroff has recently published a monograph on the 
Northern Chinese (VI. 5). He draws somewhat sweeping 
conclusions from very scanty data, and his methods call for 
considerable revision in details, as he does not seem to have 
fully understood the use which can legitimately be made of 
product moment tables. 

He declares that the Chinese are a complex of anthropo- 
logical types, and suggests that they lived within the limits 
of West Central China, whence they moved east, north, and 
south. The movements eastwards resulted in the amalgama- 
tion of the Chinese, the Tungus, and the Paleasiatics ; 


CHINA 163 


though he does not appear to define exactly what physical 
type he means by the last, he clearly defines their culture. 
He also thinks that the Chinese type is to be observed in the 
population of Manchuria and Korea. 

This interesting hypothesis, though it is supported by 
much ethnological evidence, is not on the whole supported 
by the figures which are quoted by Shirokogoroff. Although 
it is hazardous to base too much evidence on the standard 
deviations of the cephalic index alone, the author’s figures 
are 3°7 for both the Chinese of Chihli and Shantung. 
These two provinces have been overrun continuously within 
historic times, and the standard deviations are surpris- 
ingly low, when areas in which similar mixing has taken 
place are compared. This evidence does not seem, then, 
sufficient to upset the general theory that the Chinese are 
in general of a remarkably homogeneous physical type. 
It seems rather more probable that the mixings which 
have taken place with other peoples have not affected 
the Chinese type to any very great extent, less than might 
possibly have been imagined. The tribes with whom he 
suggests that mixing has taken place are mostly very 
round-headed, and presumably on Shirokogoroff’s hypothesis 
they have affected an originally long-headed type. Such 
evidence as we have, however, would rather suggest that if 
anything the Northern Chinese are slightly more long- 
headed than most of the Southern Chinese, although this 
point is by no means fully established. 

His data from Shantung and Chihli provinces show that 
the Chinese are, at least in this region, very tall with a 
mean stature of nearly 167 cm. This is rather less than 
Koganei’s figure, which was taken on soldiers, and might be 
expected to be above the average of the general population. 
It agrees, however, with that of other observers. This great 
stature is generally considered to be one of the characters 
of the Northern Chinese. 

The current suggestion to account for this stature is a 
mixture of Mongol blood. This can hardly be the case. The 
average stature of the Mongols appears to be about 163 cm., 
although some whom I measured in Inner Mongolia with 
possibly a slight Chinese admixture were rather taller. The 
Manchus, Koreans, and Tungus are all shorter, and the 


164 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


other tribes of Northern Asia are also short. The hypothesis 
put forward both by Shirokogoroff and by other observers 
seems therefore unsatisfactory. It is, however, of interest 
to note that at least among some of the Tibetans a com- 
parable stature occurs. It will be remembered that in one 
series of skulls Morant found a resemblance between the 
Northern Chinese and one type of Tibetans. He admitted, 
however, that further evidence was needed to establish the 
point. The further evidence of stature seems to be at least 
suggestive. The number of observations which have been 
collected is hardly sufficient at present to come to a general 
conclusion, but it would seem likely that we have in Northern 
China not the mixture of several probably very different 
strains, but an underlying strain allied to the Southern 
Chinese and a second strain—occurring in Northern China, 
and how distributed we do not know at present—linking 
up with the Khams Tibetans. We find both these two 
strains in Tibet, but not mixed there. In Northern China 
it is suggested that they have become sufficiently mixed to 
cause a standard deviation of the cephalic index, which 
although it is suggestive of mixture, does not imply the very 
heterodox population which is suggested by the mixture 
of three different strains. It is unfortunate that it is not 
possible to identify exactly where Koganei’s skulls were 
collected, and the source of the rest of Morant’s collection 
of skulls from China is too doubtful to lay much stress on 
the distribution of types. 

If we sum up the very deficient data on the Northern 
Chinese it would appear that there are two types, one akin 
to the Southern Chinese, the other akin to Khams Tibetans. 
The evidence on the living suggests the presence of a tall 
element in the population; this can only be paralleled among 
neighbouring peoples in the Tibetans. On the whole, there- 
fore, it seems not impossible that the evidence of the living 
tends to confirm the suggestions made by the use of the co- 
efficient of racial likeness. Such evidence of variation as 
we have suggest that, if there is any mixture, such mixing 
has reached about the same degree of stability that is 
normally to be met with when two strains have been in 
contact for a long period. 

There can be little doubt that the Southern Chinese 


CHINA 165 


belong to the same ethnic group as the Northerners, 
but there are, however, certain important differences. 
Generally the Southerners are of smaller dimensions. The 
head-length is also smaller, though the head-breadth hardly 
differs between the two. The slight increase in the cephalic 
index is probably, therefore, rather the result of a decrease 
in stature than to any real racial difference, although it may 
possibly be interpreted in rather a different way. Many 
authors, Birkner and Morant for instance, would see little 
difference between the two, a conclusion which seems in- 
evitable if account is taken solely of cranial evidence. Such 
data as we have, however, suggests that there is a very 
great difference in stature; the data is admittedly scanty. 
It seems not improbable that we have in Southern China 
no trace of the tall element, which undoubtedly occurs in 
Northern China, and which I have suggested is to be linked 
up with the Tibetans. This would also account for the 
difference between Koganei’s observations on crania. There 
does not seem to be any evidence of this aberrant type in 
the south. But not only is the general stature in the south 
about 5 cms. shorter than in the north, a difference which 
seems greater than can be accounted for by chance variations, 
but also there are other differences on the living. It seems 
probable that the nose is slightly more platyrrhine. How 
far this is true is uncertain, because Shirokogoroff’s measure- 
ments indicate almost an excess of platyrrhiny in the north, 
but his measurements on other peoples are such that it 
seems possible that he has not adopted the technique 
which is in general use. If we accept his figures it is 
necessary to admit a small area of platyrrhiny in the north 
which does not agree with other observers. With this 
proviso it appears that the nasal index increases slightly as 
we go further south, possibly the result of increasingly hot 
and moist climates. The colour of the skin also appears to 
be darker in the south. The difference in skin-colour is 
essentially a feature which is due to environment and cannot 
be considered as a racial feature. 

The differences between the north and south are not great, 
but sufficient to allow us to make a distinction between the 
two groups of Chinese. Their history in recent times has 
been very different, and the water-shed between the Hwang 


166 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Ho and the Yangtze is probably to be considered as the 
dividing-line between the two sub-groups of the same people. 

Up to the present it must be admitted that our evidence 
is so scanty that any views which are put forward must 
be considered as extremely tentative. The Chinese repre- 
sent a single ethnic unit; this unit has probably been 
sufficiently strong in numbers to be able to maintain its 
individuality in the face of various invaders. The Tibetan 
element in the north is probably extremely early, and in 
our present state of knowledge it is hardly possible to assign 
a definite place to it. 

There is every probability that not only Western culture 
but also Western physique has affected the population of 
China in early times, but on this point also it is useless at 
present to speculate until we have reasonable records, 
province by province, of the actual physique to-day of the 
Chinese. 


CHAPTER VII 
Tue FRINGING LANDS OF CHINA 


A. CENTRAL ASIA, TIBET, AND CHINESE TURKESTAN 


es the last three chapters I have been describing the 
ethnology of the three great parts of Asia which, with 
the exception of Japan, are best known to Europe. This 
chapter I propose to devote to a study of the people who 
inhabit the region which lies at the meeting-point of the 
regions already discussed. This can be done the more 
briefly because the inhabitants of this area are naturally 
related to those who inhabit the peripheral lands. Much 
of the region is desert and all of it is sparsely inhabited, 
but although comparatively few individuals make up the 
eroups described in this chapter, the peculiar nature of their 
environment has rendered them of particular interest to 
ethnologists. 

Tibet has an area of 700,000 square miles, but of this 
area Little estimates that six-sevenths is uninhabitable. 
The high plateau is a frozen stony desert and contrasts 
strongly with the lower plateau. The whole country is 
about 1600 miles from east to west and about 700 miles 
from north to south at its broadest part. It is bounded on 
the south by the Himalaya, on the west by the same 
mountains and then by the Karakoram Mountains. On 
the north it is shut in by the Kunlun, the Akka Tag, and 
the Altai Tag, and on the east by numerous ranges. South 
Tibet is traversed for 1300 miles by the Tsanpo (the Brah- 
maputra), and most of the population is situated along this 
river, 18 miles north of which lies Lhasa. From a line about 
150 miles north of and parallel to the river is the northern 
plain, Chang Tang, which extends to the foot of the Kunlun 
Mountains. Most of this is at too high an elevation for 
permanent human habitation, but the southernmost edge 
is peopled by Black tent nomads. As some comparatively 


167 


168 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


unfamiliar political names have crept into the textbooks, it 
may be convenient to note that roughly speaking the pro- 
vince of Kham extends from 92 degrees E. to the Chinese 
border, south of lat. 34 degrees. This province contains 
the greater part of the population. North-east of Kham 
province lies Kokonor, which is inhabited partly by Mongols 
and partly by Tibetans. Amdo, a part of Western Kansu 
which is inhabited by Tibetans, is included in this area. In 
a few fertile valleys, especially in the neighbourhood of 
Lhasa, plentiful crops of wheat, peas and barley are grown, 
but the main cereal crop is the last-named. 

The country may be conveniently divided into four regions. 
There is, first, the barren and desolate northern plateau 
where the vegetation is limited to a few stunted bushes. 
Secondly, especially in Southern Tibet, there are upland 
pastures, not unlike English moors, where the habitations 
are nomad tents and small stone-built towns. Thirdly, 
there are many deep ravines and rocky gorges, on the sides 
of which villages and monasteries are built. Fourthly, 
especially in Eastern Kham, rich pasturage and a plentiful 
vegetation is found in a down-like country. The whole of 
Tibet is exposed to intense cold and is usually subject to 
frosts from October to April. These have, of course, a greater 
effect on the vegetation, because all of the country lies south 
of 40 degrees and the summer has not therefore the com- 
pensating extra light which is such an important factor in 
high latitudes. 

There are three principal roads. The official Chinese road 
runs over precipitous and rocky ledges from Tachienlu and 
goes by Batang and Chamdo. There is the easier route which 
the tea caravans follow, also from Tachienlu, but over rolling 
downs through Drango, Derge, and Kegudo. Thirdly, there 
is the northern road from Sining in Kansu, by Lake Kokonor 
and the Tsaidam and thence across Chang Tang. Tibet is thus 
extraordinarily shut in by nature from the outside world, with 
high mountains on the south, deserts on the north, and other 
mountains on each side. Throughout the historical period the 
closest culture connection has always been with China, but 
it has been a far distant dependency of that power. Isolation 
and hard climatic conditions have therefore combined to 
make the study of its inhabitants of particular value. 


CHINA 169 


Both in its relation to China and to the West one of the 
most interesting parts of the central plateau is Chinese 
Turkestan, called by the Chinese Sinkiang (Hsinkiang), or 
the New Dominion. This region, which consists of over 
half a million square miles, is a plateau walled in by high 
mountains. On the south it is bounded by Kashmir and 
Tibet, on the west by the Pamirs and Russian Turkestan, 
on the north by Russian Turkestan, Siberia, and Mongolia. 
On the east part the boundary is made by the strip of 
Kansu, which forms a wedge between Tibet and Mongolia 
and partly by Tibet itself. 

On the north it is walled in by the Tien-Shan and on the 
south by the Altyn Dagh and the Kunlun. It is open to 
China on the east. It contains a remarkable depression, 
falling at lowest point, near Lob Nor, to 2000 feet. This 
is drained by the Tarim, which with the River Cherchen falls 
into Lob Nor. North of the Tien-Shan the chief rivers are 
the Ili, which falls into Lake Balkash, and the Yuldur, which 
falls into Lake Balgrash. The depression of the Tarim basin 
and Dzungaria, which includes the ways through the moun- 
tains between the Tien-Shan and the Altai, form a convenient 
unit for ethnological discussion and belong ethnologically 
to the great area which includes China and Mongolia and 
contrasts with the region to the west, that is the Central 
Asian desert with its oases of Kashgar and Yarkand east of 
the Pamirs and the Aral-Caspian region to the west, includ- 
ing Khiva, Bokhara, and Samarqand. As always, however, 
in studying human geography the boundary is by no means 
absolute. 

The region which we are studying is much of it desolate 
and ‘“‘no one passes that way.’ The coldest inhabited part 
is Barkul, the hottest Turfan, which the Chinese call Ho- 
chow, Fire-district. I have discussed the general run of the 
trade routes, but it may serve to remind the reader that the 
roads run from Suchow, through the Jade gate of that city 
to Jili, from Urumchi to Kashgar, and also from Urumchi to 
Ku-ma-cheeh; there is a camel road to Kwei-wa-cheng; a 
road from Khotan to Tuen-heng-sien and to Suchow. 
Great importance attaches to these roads in a land where 
travel is always difficult, but where there has been great 
ethnic movement, 


170 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Owing to the difference of the geographical conditions and | 
the influences to which the peoples have been exposed, it is 
convenient to describe the peoples of Tibet and of Chinese 
Turkestan separately. 

Tibetan crania have been carefully studied by Turner 
and subsequently by Morant (VII. 3). Comparatively few 
measurements seem to have been made on the living, although 
a few were included in Risley’s ethnographic survey of India. 
Until recently, of course, few travellers had penetrated into 
Tibet since the famous journey of the Abbé Hue. 

There seems to be a certain amount of difference of opinion 
among the few authorities which we have. Turner (V. 16) 
says that there is a dolichocephalic and a ‘ Mongolian ”’ 
brachycephalic race in Tibet. He associates the former with 
the warrior or fighting class, drawn for the most part from 
the province of Kham. The round-headed people Turner 
believes to constitute the main stock. He suggests that it 
is from them that a large part of the occupants of the 
monasteries are recruited. Whether this last statement, 
which is made reservedly by Turner, is correct remains for 
further observation. Among the few Tibetan monks whom 
I examined both classes could be seen, but the long-headed 
type attracts the attention most, probably because of its 
unusual nature; it is certainly found in many of the monas- 
teries. The distinction, however, is a useful one and 
convenient for purposes of nomenclature. I therefore pro- 
pose to adopt Turner’s names and call the long-heads the 
“Warrior” type and the short-heads the “ Priestly” type, 
since, as will be shown later, Morant has confirmed the 
existence of two types but has called them A and B, labels 
which are unfortunately liable to confusion and not easily 
remembered by those who are not accustomed to think in 
mathematical symbols. 

Rockhill, in his notes on the ethnology of Tibet, believes 
that with the exception of the north and north-east the 
population belongs essentially to one type. The purest 
representatives of this stock may be found among the pastoral 
tribes or Drupa which, whether found around Kokonor, in 
east, west, or Central Tibet, offer a uniform type. They 
are short, brachycephalic, with high cheek-bones, ‘‘ though 
not so high as the Mongols”; the noses are usually narrow. 


CHINA 171 


The primitive type is found among the nomads, for the 
settled people are more mixed and have an increasingly 
greater Chinese admixture as one goes towards China, and 
Indian admixture (Nepalese or Kashmiri) as one travels 
south-west. The reason for this is that the foreign immigrants 
never bring wives with them. The class whom Morant has 
called Class A belong to this type. Of the inhabitants of 
Kham, Rockhill says that there is absolutely. nothing Mongol 
about them, and they are good representatives of the old 
Tibetan civilization. These are termed by Morant Class B. 

Deniker appears to find in the Tibetans two different types, 
which however are not identical with those of Rockhill. 
One is ‘“‘Mongoloid”’ and the other he connects with the 
Lolos. The latter type is characterized by a slender figure, 
straight eye-slits, and long and sometimes wavy hair. 

Joyce briefly sums up the characters of the population 
by saying that the people are in the main Southern Mongo- 
lians with a considerable admixture of Indo-European blood. 

Morant believes that there are in Tibet at least two distinct 
races. One of these, that from the southern provinces in 
the neighbourhood of Sikkim, which he calls Type A, is 
closely allied to the Southern Chinese, the ‘* Malayans,” and 
the Burmese. The other race, the ‘“‘ Khams Tibetans,” 
show, according to the Coefficient of Racial Likeness method, 
no marked affinity with any other Oriental race, but resembles 
most the types called by Tildesley Burmese B and C, that is 
Karens and hybrid Karens. ‘‘ The skull is very similar to 
the Fuegians and the Moriori, and the impression cannot 
be avoided that we may possibly be dealing with widely 
scattered fragments of a fundamental primitive human 
type with a long-headed, broad-faced, rugous and massive 
cranium.” 

In a subsequent paper he has enlarged this idea and states 
that his Tibetan A is intermediate between the Nepalese 
and the Southern Chinese. On the other hand, “‘the measure- 
ments of Koganei’s Northern Chinese which diverge most 
markedly from the supposed Chinese type are also those 
which are intermediate between Tibetan B and pure Chinese 
characters, but the C.R.L. at once disposes of the idea of a 
relationship between Koganei’s Chinese and Tibetan B.” 

In addition to these two types it is also probable that a 


172 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


third strain has entered into the population of Tibet, namely 
the Alpine. So far, however, little definite indications of the 
presence of this type have been reported and its presence 
must await confirmation. 

There remains then to discuss the relationship of the two 
types. Haddon (I. 19, 105) suggests that the Warrior class 
evidently represents an old stock, “affinities to which may 
be looked for in other marginal areas; they may, indeed, 
have been the first inhabitants of Tibet.” 

In the earlier chapters of this book attention has already 
been drawn to a tall dolichocephalic race who appear in 
various parts of Asia and who usually seem to be of con- 
siderable antiquity. They have been provisionally called 
Proto-Nordics. Here again in Tibet this same stock, tall, 
long-headed, big-boned, and quite distinct from Yellow 
man, appears. It seems probable that we are justified 
in relating the two. In Tibet, and as we shall see later in 
Japan, the stock seems to have survived in a more primitive 
form than possibly elsewhere, but the general characteristics 
are not dissimilar. It is probable that there is considerable 
difference between these various groups which I have classed 
together under the same name. Such a difference is to be 
expected when we find isolated units of a primitive stock 
scattered over a wide area. The evidence seems to point 
to some sort of a conclusion like this. The hypothesis must, 
however, be considered as a purely tentative one until further 
evidence is accumulated in regard to the relationships of 
these very interesting people. 

The other element, Turner’s Priestly class, seem in all 
probability to belong to the Parecean race. Such a con- 
clusion is accepted by Haddon and agrees with the findings 
of Morant’s coefficient. 

In the northern part of Tibet there is no doubt a 
certain amount of Mongol influence, but the deserts have 
prevented much admixture. There has been Chinese in- 
fluence for many generations. This influence has probably 
done little to change the type of the population which is 
akin to that of the Chinese. 

In the south attention should be drawn to Morant’s 
‘cranial linkage ” of the Tibetan of the Priestly type and 
the Nepalese. It would seem as if the westward extension 


PLATE VI 





A KHAMS TIBETAN 


[face p. 172 





CHINA 173 


of the Pareceans into the plateaux and mountainous region 
had to a certain extent ended in differentiation. Possibly 
this differentiation may be due to admixture with western 
strains. 

Emphasis in any case should be laid on the fact that if we 
take the Southern Chinese as typical Pareceans we find that 
they differ but little from the Northern Chinese, or the 
inhabitants of the Indo-Chinese area or some of the Tibetans, 
whereas these various types differ quite considerably from 
one another. 

There is more information in regard to the peoples of 
Chinese Turkestan. The Chinese themselves admit three 
classes of inhabitants, very ancient aboriginal races, such 
as the Hsien-yuen, Chinese and Turkish peoples, and there 
are both Chinese and Turkish cities. 

It has been suggested that in this region the Chinese first 
developed as a people and that they gradually spread from 
the Tarim basin, possibly owing to the alteration in oasis 
conditions which may have driven them from their old homes. 
The region has been most carefully studied from an anthropo- 
logical point of view as well as from an archeological point 
of view by Sir Aurel Stein. Most of his work has, however, 
been unfortunately devoted to more modern aspects of the 
problem and the early history is still far from clear. His 
collection of anthropological data has been reported on by 
Joyce (VII. 6). 

We are concerned with four groups of people in this area. 
The first are the Taranchi and the Torgot. The second the 
Kirghiz, the Dolan, the Kelpin, and the Aksu. The third 
group is composed of desert peoples, the nucleus being com- 
posed of Turfan, Khotan, Korla, and Charklik. Finally, 
there is an interesting group of Chinese, to whom the Loblik 
are probably related. There are also some intermediate 
peoples, and Joyce is inclined to class the Polu and the mixed 
population of Hami with the desert group, to whom he believes 
that the Niya and Keriya, although mixed with some other 
element, should also be classed. 

The Taranchi or Ili Tatars at present live in Semirechie 
and in the Transcaspian territory. They migrated from 
Sinkiang when Kuldja came under Chinese control, they 
therefore may be considered to belong to their old home from 


174 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


a geographical point of view. Czaplicka believes them to 
be the descendants of the old Uigur, and to belong more to 
the western oases than to the eastern part of Sinkiang. 
They have been variously described. Czaplicka says that 
they are like the Sarts and are the least ‘“ Turkic” of 
all the Iranian Turks in physical form. Paissel (VII. 8) 
describes them as being a Turkish folk of mixed ‘“‘ Aryan and 
Mongolian features.” They have a stature that is higher 
than most of the Mongols (165 ems.), very round heads, the 
cephalic index being reported to be as high as 87, and narrow 
noses, with a nasal index of 66. Racially it would seem 
probable that they should be classed with such people as 
the round-headed Buriats (see page 180). The evidence 
appears to suggest that we have among these peoples, as 
among so many of the Central Asiatic peoples, an ancient 
mixture of Alpine or Armenoid blood and possibly early 
branches of Yellow man. It is not unremarkable that 
we should not find them with a continuous distribution, 
but that they should be scattered across a very wide area, 
often in what appears in the present state of our know- 
ledge to be almost ethnological islands, much in the same way 
that similar isolated round-headed groups are found in 
Western Asia. There can be little doubt that the Sarts of 
the uplands belong to the same racial groups as Czaplicka 
has suggested (see page 114). 

Ivanovski has suggested that there is an anthropological 
type which he calls “‘ Central Asiatic.’? He describes their 
features thus. They have dark coloured hair and eyes, light 
hair and eyes do occur but only in exceptional cases. The 
stature of the greater number is medium. High stature 
does occur among some peoples, such as the Kaizak of the 
Middle Horde, the town Taranchi, and some Sarts. The 
head is brachycephalic or hyperbrachycephalic. The nose 
is usually leptorrhine, but broad noses are sometimes found, 
especially among such peoples as the Kaizak of the Middle 
Horde. The trunk is usually long. 

The presence of blue eyes is of particular interest. I have 
already called attention to the presence of light eyes in 
various parts of West Central Asia. Data appear to be 
lacking in regard to the Ili peoples, but in the Altai region 
Yadrintseff has drawn attention to the fact that many of 


CHINA 175 


the peoples in the region of the Altai who have had no 
contact with recent colonists have blue eyes, chestnut hair, 
and non-prominent features, a condition which probably 
expresses in more accurate language what Paissel meant when 
he records the presence of ‘‘ Aryan features’ among the 
Taranchi. 

The second sub-group in this area, the Torgots, belong 
historically to the Mongols and are more conveniently 
discussed in the section which deals with those widely-spread 
peoples (see page 180). 

The second group, the Kirghiz, Dolan, Kelpin and Aksu, 
appear to be very distinct from the other peoples in this 
area, and Joyce suggests that they are a mixture of “‘ Southern 
Mongolian and Turkish” stock. The Dolan are remarkable 
for having as many as 65 per cent with a rosy brown colour ; 
except among the Kirghiz where fair hair is rare, the average 
amount of fair and medium hair amounts to about 15 per 
cent. Dark eyes are the rule except among the Kelpin, 
where 14 per cent had light eyes. All this group are wavy- 
haired. All these peoples are characterized by a very high 
cephalic index, the head being both absolutely and relatively 
short and broad. 

The skin-colour of the desert people has often a tinge of 
yellow in it, due possibly, as Joyce suggests, to contact with 
Chinese, although possibly this element may be much earlier 
than recent Chinese intrusion. These people also show a 
higher percentage of black hair than their neighbours. 
Their hair is in texture practically always curly, a feature 
which they share in common with the Pamir people and 
which isolates them markedly from the Chinese. They 
have the most deeply pigmented eyes of the region under 
consideration. Apart from the Korla folk, who have an 
index of 81, the rest of the desert people are markedly 
brachycephalic. 

The last group includes the Chinese. Of them no less 
than 65 per cent have a yellow skin, and 75 per cent have 
black hair, practically all of them have straight hair, and 
though the majority of them have dark eyes, yet 15 per 
cent blue eyes are found. Unlike the other peoples we have 
been describing, they and the Loblik are long-headed, the 
cephalic index of 20 Chinese being as low as 76. 


176 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


The general problem raised by these peoples is of great 
interest. The majority of peoples in the area undoubtedly 
have a common element. This is described by Joyce as 
Iranian. It seems better to accept Haddon’s use of the 
term Pamiri. This type is certainly related to Alpine man. 
Joyce believes that four other elements are represented. The 
first is a tall, dark, brachycephalic race of White affinities 
with broad cheek-bones and straighter hair. These he 
describes as the ‘“‘ Turkish” race. To a large extent, as has 
been shown, the cultural and physical types do coincide, 
and the relationship of these Turki people has been discussed 
in dealing with the area to the west (see page 114). F inally, 
there seems to be an element which connects these folk with 
the Tibetans and a very different stock which Joyce describes 
as Southern Mongolian, i.e. Parecean. He emphasizes the 
point that the original inhabitants of the area, including the 
see ae buried in the sand, were probably of Alpine stock, 
and that the “ Mongolian” type has had very little influence 
on the population, this being limited to a slight Tibetan 
influence on the desert peoples and restricted Chinese in- 
fluence on the east. 

These conclusions are of the very greatest importance, 
especially in relation to the origin of the Chinese. I have 
already shown that some scholars believe that it is in 
Chinese Turkestan that the original motherland of the Chinese 
is to be found, while others put it in West Central China. 
Haddon places it in Northern Kansu (I. 19, 106) and most 
authors are, I believe, inclined to consider it axiomatic that 
they were then at least in close contact with the west. It 
would seem to follow that either the contact must have been 
purely cultural, or else all traces of early Chinese influence 
have been consumed by successive immigrations of Turko- 
Mongol peoples. There is a further possibility that the 
Chinese type as we see it to-day must be separated from 
the culture. That this is by no means an impossibility is 
shown by the fact already quoted that the chalcolithic 
culture in China which is non-Chinese is apparently associated 
with a Chinese physical type. If we accept this solution 
of the dilemma we are bound to suppose that the early 
originators of the Chinese culture were mostly of Pamiri 
type, and that if they had any Yellow blood it was not 


CHINA V7, 


sufficient to influence the people with whom they came in 
contact on the west. As they advanced eastwards they 
would have been absorbed in the Yellow race which has 
absorbed so many invaders of China. I do not think that 
there is at present sufficient evidence to support a theory of 
this type. It appears to be the type of dilemma which 
faces the enquirer who endeavours to correlate the work of 
various authors who are approaching the same problem 
from a different angle. 

The other peoples can probably be more simply classified. 
They seem to consist of different degrees of admixture of 
peoples who are so far differentiated that they have become 
sub-groups of the same race, namely, the Alpine and the 
Armenoid. The Turki race, though it is rather a culture 
than a race, seems to be an early mixture of western elements 
and of folk akin to the Yellow race. Probably the mixture 
is a very early one and had taken place before these peoples 
were in Chinese Turkestan. 


B. MONGOLIA 


Mongolia, which has given its name to a vast number of 
individuals of the human race, consists of a very extensive 
area. Speaking generally, it consists of a wide plateau, 
which in places is waterless. It extends from the Pamirs on 
the west to the borders of Manchuria on the east, and 
divides the warm and fertile plain of China from the cold 
Siberian depression on the north. To the west, except for 
a narrow strip of country, it has formed a boundary which 
has prevented all movement from north to south. This 
whole area has by its conformation played a very important 
part in the whole ethnological history of Asia, and, indeed, 
in its political history at certain times. 

Mongolia proper is almost as large as China proper. Its 
northern boundaries are the provinces of Tomsk, Yeneseisk, 
Irkutsk, and Transbaikalia, the actual boundaries being, for 
the most part, the Altai and the Zayan Mountains, the latter 
of which are continued eastwards as the Yablonoi Mountains. 
The eastern boundary is formed by the Khingan Mountains, 
which divide it from Manchuria. Along its southern edge 
it is bounded by the westerly continuation of the Khingan 

N 


178 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Mountains, and more to the west by the great escarpment 
on which the Great Wall is built. Further still to the west 
the southern boundary is formed by that strip of fertile land 
lying to the north of the Nan-Shan which forms the divid- 
ing line between the desert of Taklamakan and Gobi. 
Physiographically it consists of highlands, which rise gradu- 
ally from south-west to north-east and are slightly hollowed 
in the centre. The borders are extremely mountainous and 
Gobi is divided by the lesser Altai. 

The roads through these boundaries are very important 
for our present purpose. On the west between the Tien-Shan 
and the Altai there are three depressions, all of which give 
access to the west. These are, first, the Black Irtish River 
between Ektag Altai and the Tarbagatai Mountains, the 
most frequented route which leads past the town of Chugu- 
chah, and thirdly, the road which follows the beds of Lakes 
Ayar and Ebi, and connects with Lake Balkash. The south- 
western boundary may be said to coincide with the most 
strategic roads in Asia; the northern road runs from Barkul 
along the northern slopes of the Tien-Shan. This is the route 
for Dzungaria, whence the way to the west lies along one of 
the roads I have already mentioned. The strategic point 
to the south-east of Barkul is Hami (Khamil), which is of 
especial importance in its relation to the Southern Tien-Shan 
road that leads to Kashgaria. From Hami the road leads 
to Anshi and along the old desert way into the Jade Gate at 
Suchow. Of the region by the desert road, which the Chinese 
kept open for so many hundred years, an old Chinese topo- 
grapher writes: ‘“‘ For many miles there are no barbarians 
dwelling, or cattle grazing, nor is there water or grass and, 
moreover, no one passes that way.” It has been suggested 
by many that the Chinese came into China this way by the 
swamps of Lob Nor, and the little belt on the slopes of the 
Nan-Shan which bounds Mongolia. There are also roads 
through the great Ordos bend, much of which is desert, to 
the city of Kwei-wa-cheng and to the Kalgan, joining on 
the way the road that leads to the north, to Urga, to Kara- 
koram, and to Uliassetai, dividing somewhere north of 
Kalgan in these different directions and sending a further 
branch to the north-east to Dolon Nor. 

Mongolia may be divided into three parts, North-west 


CHINA 179 


Mongolia, Gobi, and Inner Mongolia, or, as it is sometimes 
divided, into Outer and Inner Mongolia. The great Ordos 
bend of the Hwang Ho, although it is separated from Mon- 
golia by the river, belongs to it both ethnically and geo- 
graphically. Much of the country is desert, except in the 
neighbourhood of the mountains, but Inner Mongolia is 
better watered and has in recent years, since the fall of the 
power of the Mings, become in many ways one of the typical 
wandering grounds of the nomad pastoral Mongols. 

The Mongols are regarded by Deniker as a more homo- 
geneous group than the Turks, but he divides them into 
three groups, the Western Mongols or Kalmucks, the Eastern 
Mongols, and the Buriats. The extension of these people is 
far beyond the limits of Mongolia, as the Kalmucks are found 
as far to the west as the Volga, and the Buriats are at present, 
for the most part, situated in Siberia, although some of them 
are to be found in Mongolia. 

The racial problem of the Mongols is of the greatest interest 
but, unfortunately, few skulls have been collected in Western 
Kurope, and the records are not as full as could be wished. 
Two entirely opposing views have been taken on their racial 
affinities. Deniker says (I. 9, 879) that “the type of the 
Mongolian race is very strongly marked among most of the 
Kalmucks and Khalkhas ; it is less distinctly marked among 
the Buriats.”” Morant, on the other hand, believes that the 
Torgots, that is, certain of the nomadic tribes of Western 
Mongolia, Astrakhan Kalmucks, and the Buriats are intimately 
related to the Kalmucks and to the Telenghites who are 
Mongols from the neighbourhood of the Altai. He believes 
that they occupy an intermediate position between these two 
extreme and dissimilar types, that is, the Telenghites and 
the Kalmucks. He finds further that they do not belong to 
the group which he describes as Oriental and which includes 
such peoples as the Chinese and the Burmese. 

Not only is there this extreme difference of opinion, but 
also various authors give entirely different measurements 
for people whom they call by the same name. This being 
so, it is necessary before discussing the physical characters 
of these peoples to enquire briefly into the nomenclature 
in ordinary use. First, the Western Mongols are said by 
Deniker to call themselves Eleuts and to be known as 


180 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Kalmucks by their neighbours. This term has been used very 
loosely not only by travellers, but also by anthropologists. 
They are undoubtedly scattered over a very wide area, 
owing to their warlike and nomadic habits, but there are 
compact groups of them on the Astrakhan steppes and near 
Stravropol and also in the territory of the Don Cossack 
Horde. Ivanovski (J. Anthrop. Soc., Moscow, LX XI, 1893) 
states that the Western Horde of the Mongols were called 
Urat by the Manchus and U-lat by the Chinese, which be- 
came transliterated into western languages as Eleut. Accord- 
ing to the Mongol historians there are four branches, the 
Dzungar, the Torgot, the Choschot, and the Durbot, each 
with a colour or banner. Some of the Torgots migrated as 
far west as the Volga in 1630, when they came under Russian 
rule, as did many of the Mongols in 1686. There was a great 
easterly migration in 1771, lasting eight months. They 
eventually settled in the Ili district. Potanin believes that 
the Torgots of the Tarbagatai are the direct descendants of 
the migrants and that the Altai Tatars have been settled 
in this district for a long time. 

Some authors consider that the Telenghites should be 
considered as Altai Mongols associated with this western 
group, and they are often called Mongols. Culturally, how- 
ever, they are Turks and the term Mongol should not be 
applied to them. Physically, on the other hand, they have 
undoubtedly absorbed much Mongol blood. The history of 
these people will show how difficult it is to express clearly 
the ethnological position of such nomadic habits who have 
traversed even in recent times such vast areas. A similar 
account could be given of the other branches, but the 
Torguts must suffice as an example of their migratory 
capabilities. 

The second important branch of the Mongols, the Buriats, 
are said to be an offshoot of the Khalkha Mongols. Their 
centre of dispersion at present is Transbaikalia, and they 
seem to have absorbed elements of many different physical 
and cultural groups. 

Finally, the third group of Mongols, usually known as the 
‘true ’? Mongols, the people who claim kinship with Genghiz 
Khan, belong to Gobi and Inner Mongolia. They also 
include a number of tribes and banners, of which the best 


CHINA 181 


known are the Khalkhas in the north and the Chahkhar in 
the south.} 

The majority of these peoples are connected linguistically. 
They have been bound together in loose but immense or- 
ganizations and many of them have the same cultural 
elements. They have also many physical elements in common, 
but it seems not improbable that they have absorbed, at least 
in part, a good many other elements. 

They are usually but not always distinguished by a high 
cephalic index, although there appears to be considerable 
differences even between members of the same group; the 
Alar Buriats are reported to have an index of 82, the 
Selanga Buriats of 88, which is closer to Morant’s figure for 
a mixed collection of Buriat skulls of 84, the other measure- 
ments being taken on the living. In Inner Mongolia, on the 
other hand, the indices are closer to those of the Chinese. 
Generally, however, it seems probable that we may consider 
the Mongols in the broadest sense to have very broad heads. 
They are always of medium stature, and on the whole there 
does not appear to be any great variation in this character, 
which is usually in the neighbourhood of 163 cms. This 
is all the more remarkable, because they appear, at least in 
Southern Mongolia, closely to resemble the Chinese in cephalic 
index, but not in stature. 

The hair-colour appears to be always black and there- 
fore does not serve as any guide to race. The character of 
the skin is of importance. Reicher states, at second hand, 
that the skin is yellowish among the Buriats, but he adds 
that it is ighter on the unexposed parts of the body. Deniker 
describes it as pale yellow or of a brownish hue. Porotov 
says that among the Alar Buriats it is not white but brunette. 
Among the Chahkhar Mongols of Inner Mongolia it is seldom 
yellow, but brown on the face and whitish, or rather a dull 


1 In 1922 the Mongols told me that they were divided as follows: Outer 
Mongolia, including the four old clans whose rulers claimed to be the de- 
scendants of Genghiz Khan, was divided into 57 banners. East and South 
Mongolia was divided into 49 banners, and the border, under Chinese rule, 
into 15 banners. Some of them told me that they believed that there were 
quite recognizable differences between some of the different groups physically 
although not cultural or linguistically. I have no means of checking their 
statement. The border country does, of course, present certain differences 
due to, Chinese intermixture, but some of the families have the greatest ob- 
jection_to marrying into families who have Chinese blood in their veins. 


182 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


brunet, on those parts of the body covered with clothing. 
It seems probable that although undoubtedly a yellowish 
tint occurs on the whole, the complexion of the Mongols 
tends to a brown or a brunet rather than yellow. 

Among some of the Mongols the Mongolian fold un- 
doubtedly occurs, even in so high a percentage as 25, and 
among the Buriats Porotov found that the eye aperture was 
oblique in half the cases which he examined. These observa- 
tions would suggest that if we accept these characters as 
being typical of Yellow man, the evidence of which racial 
group the Mongols belong to is somewhat conflicting. 

It seems probable that this disaccord of the evidence is 
due rather to the difficulty of deciding which tribes who 
speak Mongol languages do not belong to this physical type, 
and which of those who are of the physical type do not 
belong to the Mongol linguistic group ; some of the Tungus 
tribes, for instance, really belong to the physical group. On 
the whole the facts adduced by both Deniker and Morant— 
although they do draw different conclusions—must be con- 
strued so that we admit an underlying physical type. This 
type is not everywhere to be found among Mongol-speaking 
peoples, but the frequency with which it occurs suggests 
that at one time there was a comparatively homogeneous 
stock, extending, perhaps, beyond the limits of Mongolia 
but centred round that region. This type should probably 
be called Central Asiatic, rather than Siberian as Morant 
calls it. 

This type differs from all the peoples which we have met 
with in Southern Asia. The great divide of the desert has 
prevented them from mixing with the Tibetan stock. I 
have already argued that though possibly the Northern 
Chinese may have a certain amount of Mongol blood, a 
possibility which must be admitted on historical grounds, 
yet on the whole it has not affected their type. This point 
is strongly emphasized both by Reicher and Morant, who 
see very considerable differences between the Mongols, and 
they were treating for the most part with Northern and 
Western Mongols and the Chinese. 

In dealing with the tribes of Siberia it will be seen that there 
are clear differences between them and the Mongols. There 
remain then the people on the west. We have in most 


CHINA 183 


the peoples who are vaguely called Turks; here again we 
have not dissimilar problems, owing to the racial and the 
cultural boundaries cutting across one another. 

The Mongols appear to be a wedge of peoples driven in 
between the Parecean man on the south and the Arctic and 
sub-Arctic tribes on the north. The geographical conditions 
are such as to render this suggestion not unlikely, for the 
Mongols may be said to hold the key position which is either 
the gate of the east or the west. In Turkestan, at Anau, as 
has been already stated on page 72, we find evidence of 
an early culture which has its counterpart in the more 
westerly parts of Asia. That this culture extended also to 
the east we also know. In China it is not associated with 
a physical type. It seems, however, not improbable that 
we, at least to a certain extent, find a physical type which 
corresponds in its movements to this culture, and that this 
physical type is the homogeneous stratum underlying the 
Mongols. It seems also probable from an examination of 
their physical characters that the Mongols represent a branch 
of that race which I have described as Alpine with, of course, 
considerable admixture of other races. It seems not improb- 
able that they are, on the whole, more akin to the Armenoid 
branch than to any other, but this point has not yet been 
worked out in detail. There is certainly a large element in 
the present population of Inner Mongolia which appears 
from an examination of the living to suggest this branch of 
the human family. 

It is a very remarkable fact that, in spite of differences 
which are often considerable, we should find such a homo- 
geneity. It must, however, be remembered that within 
historic times the Mongols have wandered far and that 
over much of the area the population has always been small. 
It is also likely that among nomads in a big area there would 
be less divergence of type than between a settled population 
of relatively much greater density. 

There can be little doubt that the original Armenoid type 
has been much modified. We may either suggest a new type, 
or with greater probability suppose that contact with other 
races has served to modify the original strain. Such a sug- 
gestion would serve to show why there is possibly a connec- 
tion, according to Morant’s interesting theory, between the 


184 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Buriats and the Koreans, although, no doubt, he would have 
found a closer connection if he had taken skulls from Inner 
Mongolia to make his comparison. 

We have, however, left the very great and undoubted 
difficulty that many of the Mongols appear to show features 
which we are accustomed to call Mongolian, but which would 
if they were at bottom Armenoid be a misnomer. Several 
points must, however, be remembered. First, it is by no 
means certain how far Yellow man is to be divided from the 
White. It may be that we have among these peoples an 
intermediate type. It seems on the whole more scientific, 
however, to suggest that as the Mongols have for long been 
an intrusive element between the northern and the Parecean 
branches of the same type they may represent an inter- 
mediate form as the result of mixing. In any case they must 
be considered as distinct from those whom we usually call 
Mongolian, a paradox which is merely verbal and not actual. 
There are certainly among some Mongol tribes traces of a 
greater degree of admixture with Yellow man, and among 
those tribes the characters of Yellow man are naturally 
striking. Among other tribes, however, this mixing is less 
obvious. The Mongol physical type can be seen in my 
photograph, which should be compared with that of an 
average Chinese from Northern China. 

I have used the word Mongol all through this discussion 
for lack of a better term. It must, however, be remembered 
that the physical type by no means coincides with the 
cultural and what might be called almost the national type. 
Nor is the physical type entirely limited to Mongolia or the 
only type which occurs there. I should rather be inclined 
to call it the typical form of man who lives in that region 
at present. The type does not extend to the east to any 
great extent. It has only passed sporadically, as far as can 
be judged, beyond the Wall, south of which it is nowhere 
found as a group. It extends beyond the northern limits 
of Mongolia into Transbaikalia and the provinces which 
border the Altai, although there are suggestions that its 
extension in this direction is recent, as recent, according to 
Shirokogoroff, as between the first and fourth centuries a.p. 

To the west the Mongol physical type in a great many 
cases becomes indistinguishable from that of the Turks. But 


CHINA 185 


this statement must be qualified. There are in the west 
Mongol tribes who have recently migrated westwards. These 
on the whole have retained their own characteristics, a fact 
to be expected, considering that they have only been a short 
time in their present habitat. In this way we find that the 
Kalmucks of Astrakhan, recent immigrants to the west, still 
retain the features which relate them to the Buriats. The 
Telenghites, on the other hand, who are culturally more 
closely related to the Turks, present relationships to their 
neighbours but are further from the Mongol type. 

The case is closely paralleled to the Turks who, as we 
have seen in Asia Minor, on the whole present slight dif- 
ferences which will serve to distinguish them from the mixed 
Armenoid and Mediterranean population, but more to the 
east show an Armenoid type, increasingly mixed with other 
elements till it becomes indistinguishable almost from the 
Mongol. 

Besides the Mongols and their allies there are in Inner 
Mongolia a large number of Chinese. I have shown else- 
where how, although probably the true ethnic divide may 
be considered as the escarpment along which the Great Wall 
runs, yet at various times the advance of the Chinese 
agriculturist has completely driven back the nomad Mon- 
gol. At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty the Chinese 
sphere ran apparently as far as the edge of Gobi, quite an 
appreciable distance into Mongolia. They retired later, 
and are now beginning to regain lost territory. This advance 
and retreat of the Chinese is particularly instructive in 
regard to the ethnology of the Mongols, and shows the danger 
of generalizing too widely. Undoubtedly a good deal of 
mixing is taking place between the two strains, but, on the 
whole, at present the Chinese type is making great headway 
in Inner Mongolia. Side by side then with the Mongol type 
we have in apparently increasing numbers a population 
which is in main closely akin to the stock of Northern China, 
but with a certain, possibly almost negligible, amount of 
Mongol blood. 

There are also other racial elements in Mongolia proper ; 
these are, first, Manchu and other Tungusic elements, who 
are probably of importance in the east. Their racial affinities 
will be discussed in the following section. On the north it 


186 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


seems probable that there are northern elements existing 
as groups, but there seems to be little information on this 
point. On the south and west the Mongols appear to have 
invaded other territories and not so much to have been 
invaded, but here, too, there is an important Chinese element 
in the population. 

If we sum up then the physical characteristics of the 
inhabitants of Mongolia, we may say that there seems to 
be an underlying homogeneous element among the people 
who claim to be Mongols; this is probably, especially on the 
borders, mixed with other strains, but is essentially different 
from Yellow or Mongoloid man. Their territory has been 
invaded by Yellow man, who has at times mixed much with 
the population, and to-day often exists in groups within 
Mongol territory, but is always physically and culturally 
distinct. The Mongols are connected by blood with some 
branch of Alpine or Armenoid man. 


C. MANCHURIA 


To the north-east of Mongolia lies the territory which is 
known to the Chinese as three Eastern Provinces and to 
Europeans as Manchuria. It now forms part of China 
proper. Although it can hardly be considered an ethno- 
logical province it is convenient to treat it separately, 
especially since the dynastic name of Manchu is so well 
known. It is bounded on the north and east by Siberia and 
Korea, on the south-west by Mongolia, and its southern ex- 
tremity forms a peninsula which extends into the Yellow Sea. 
It has an area of something under 400,000 square miles. 

Manchuria is traversed from north to south by the Khingan 
Mountains, which rather than the actual political frontier 
form the ethnological divide on the north-west, and by the 
Changpai-Shan on the south-eastern boundary. Spurs from 
these ranges run towards the centre of the country. This 
central region in the south is made up of an alluvial plain 
which occupies most of Fengtien and is of great agricultural 
value. It is continued northwards in the valley of the 
Sungari. In the north and centre there are wide marsh- 
lands and undulating forest country. There are two main 
lines of approach, On the north Manchuria lies open to the 


CHINA 187 


valley of the Amur and on the south to the Yellow Sea, and 
a consideration of this fact will serve to explain much of 
the ethnical history of the land. The political boundary 
with Siberia is the Amur River, and this boundary has not 
proved a barrier to ethnic movement. The Chinese frontier 
is artificial. 

Unfortunately little systematic anthropology has been 
done in this area, and the use of dynastic names has done 
much to confuse the issue. As is natural from the situation 
the country has both within recent years and in much 
earlier times been extensively occupied by immigrants. The 
Chinese especially have migrated into Manchuria and to-day 
form one of the most important, if not the most important, 
element in the population. There has also been consider- 
able Mongol intermixture, a point of considerable interest 
which will be considered later. 

There appears to be considerable difference of opinion in 
regard to the Manchus themselves. It should be remem- 
bered that the name is of recent origin and is not known 
until the early part of the seventeenth century. The Man- 
chus are generally described as being a Tungusic tribe. 
This is a linguistic term and cannot be applied to somato- 
logical evidence, a confusion which has unfortunately been 
made by Torii in his otherwise valuable paper on the 
Manchus. Czaplicka has brilliantly compared the use of 
the word Manchu in Eastern Asia to the use of the word 
Bantu in Africa, both terms becoming meaningless when 
we are dealing with physical characters. 

Torii describes the true Manchus, that is the people of 
the soil who are not immigrant Chinese or other recent 
settlers, as having a yellow skin, hair absolutely straight 
and black, beard small, straight and scattered, very little 
hair on the body, and with two forms of face, one long 
and the other round. The eyes are always brown. Such 
few observations as I have been able to make on Manchus 
confirms this description. I am inclined to believe, how- 
ever, that occasionally an hazel tinge occurs in the eyes. 
The observations on the cephalic index are, as usual, the 
most numerous data available. Here there appears to be 
considerable difference of opinion. Crania Ethnica give 
79, a figure closely corresponding to the cephalic index of 


188 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


the Northern Chinese, and Parjakoff’s figure, quoted by 
Ivanovski, is similar (82 on the living). Other authors 
have, however, come to different conclusions. Both Ujfalvy 
and Torii state that the Manchus are extremely brachy- 
cephalic, giving indices of 85 and 87 respectively. 

It will be seen that there exists here an exact parallel to 
what is found among the Eastern Mongols. Some of the 
observations appear to suggest a close relationship with the 
Northern Chinese, others a very different strain. I think 
that the skin-colour and the eye-colour, if closely examined, 
show similar divergences; some of the Manchus are very 
definitely yellow, others, though no doubt they might be 
classed as yellow or brown by a superficial observer, incline 
to brown on the exposed parts of the body and to white on 
the unexposed parts. The solution which I am inclined to 
suggest is that we have here again an old mixture of Alpine 
with Yellow man, not dissimilar to what has occurred in 
Mongolia. A very large number of Manchus show facial 
features which belong to the west rather than the east, 
adding additional weight to this hypothesis. In a small 
collection of crania, or in a series of measurements made in 
one area, as, for instance, Torii’s were, there is every pos- 
sibility that such a racial mixture, cutting across national 
and linguistic boundaries as it does, would be obscured or 
entirely concealed. 

Since the seventeenth century the Manchus, with their 
military organization of the Bannermen, have been widely 
scattered over China. For the most part they have become 
entirely absorbed in the population. Certain exceptions have, 
however, occurred. It was one of the terms which China 
forced upon her conquerors that no Chinese woman should 
ever enter the Imperial harem, and in many families alliance 
with the Manchus would have been considered a disgrace ; 
there remain, therefore, some Manchus who to-day have 
probably retained, even in China, their old racial type, but 
for the most part it is necessary to search in some of the 
remoter parts of Manchuria for the old Manchu type. 

Not only have the Chinese overrun Manchuria, but in 
recent years Japanese and other immigrants, especially in 
the railway zone, have contributed largely towards the 
alteration of the original population. 


PLATE VII 





A MANCHU 


[face p. 188 





CHINA 189 


The examination of the standard deviations of the measure- 
ments on Manchus made by Shirokogoroff brings out an 
extremely interesting point on which sufficient stress does 
not appear to have been laid. That observer found that 
the mean value of measurements made on Chinese in Man- 
churia was not dissimilar to those of the Manchus, but 
differed from the other Chinese of Northern China. The 
standard deviations are, however, extremely different. 
Shirokogoroff does not believe that standard deviations can 
be used as a measure of racial admixture; his own measure- 
ments might, however, be used to confute him. The Chinese 
standard deviations are very high, as might be expected 
where there was every reason to expect racial admixture ; 
among the Manchus, however, especially in the cephalic 
index, the standard deviation is very low. This is all the 
more remarkable, because most of the neighbouring peoples 
show high deviations. I am at a loss to account for this 
small deviation, especially since, as I have shown, other 
evidence points to a mixing of races. The series would 
appear to be sufficiently long (82 ¢). It is possible that they 
may belong to one endogamous group, but in any case the 
figures deserve a careful investigation, and it is to be hoped 
that further enquiries will be made in Manchuria and this 
interesting point considered. 


D. KOREA 


Korea is the third of the northern peripheral countries of 
China. It is a country of particular interest, as although 
it has for the most part been permeated with Chinese culture, 
it had the misfortune to occupy the middle position between 
that country and Japan, and the modern connection with 
Japan, and at an early period intermarriages took place 
between the Royal houses of the two countries. It was 
through Korea that the Buddhist missionaries reached Japan. 
The country consists of a peninsula of high mountain ranges 
and plateaux. The plain country, nowhere very extensive, 
is confined to the south and west. It lies immediately con- 
tiguous with Manchuria and the Russian Maritime Province, 
the Tumen and Yalu rivers forming its northern and: western 
boundaries. On the other sides it is surrounded by the sea, 
but the distance across the Fusan channel is not great. 


190 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


The term Korea must be considered as national and 
cultural rather than physical, and although the Japanese 
scientists have produced monographs of considerable magni- 
tude on the physical characters of the Koreans, their studies 
have been for the most part intensive and most of the com- 
parisons have been limited to Japanese. 

The published figures indicate that the Koreans are very 
heterogeneous. Both the work of Kubo and Shirokogoroff, 
each of whom has published figures in statistical form. 
From the geographical position of Korea it would rather 
be expected that the Koreans would be a mixed race. We 
know that within historic times they have been subjected 
to a series of foreign influences. The Chinese annals give 
considerable details on this subject and are conveniently 
summarized by Shirokogoroff. To-day there can be little 
doubt that all along the western border and in the north 
Chinese elements form a very appreciable part of the popula- 
tion. In the west the Manchu element is also a dominant 
feature, to the exclusion, it would almost seem, of the 
original Korean element. Historically, within recent times, 
the Mongols have overrun Korea. The mixed type of the 
population can therefore hardly be doubted and, judging 
by the statistical constants, it would be unwise to speak of 
a Korean type. Such a type would only be the mean of a 
series of elements of wide diversity. The stature alone 
shows a rather low constant. This is, however, to be ex- 
pected, as it is approximately about 163 cms., a stature that 
is found among many of the peoples in this region. Mixing 
of different peoples with the same stature would not serve 
to increase the variation. The cephalic index, by itself an 
uncertain guide but so often pointing the way to racial 
affinities, is about 83, which is about half-way between the 
extreme types with a head index of 86 and the more common 
index which is in the neighbourhood of 81, an additional 
argument, when combined with the standard deviation, of 
admixture. It has already been seen that even among the 
Mongols we get such an admixture of types, the one approxi- 
mating to the Alpine type of Europe and the other to the 
type of Northern China. Such a simple explanation is hardly 
sufficient to explain the general type of the Koreans. Shiro- 
kogoroff has suggested that the basic type of the Koreans 


CHINA 191 


is that of the Paleasiatics ; he believes such peoples occupied 
all the coast-line of the Gulf of Chihli, Korea, and practically 
north of a line connecting Korea with Lake Baikal, at the 
time which he describes as the first ethnical movement about 
the fourth millennium B.c. Two millennia later the Pale- 
asiatics were restricted to Korea and the coast-line of the 
Maritime Province. Our knowledge of the archeology of 
the whole region is hardly sufficient to justify so definite an 
arrangement as he suggests, and I can hardly admit such 
fundamental racial changes in so short a time, if we use the 
analogy of the west, where we know racial changes have 
proceeded so slowly, to apply to the east. It seems not 
improbable, however, that some early type may, as one 
of the components of the highly complex physical form 
of the Koreans, include as a basis the aboriginal Pale- 
asiatic type. This is all the more interesting, because we 
find that they serve as link between the type of Yellow man 
in the south and those in the north, a fact which suggests 
that such a type was once widely distributed over Northern 
Asia, and that the invading wedge of the Mongols and Turki 
peoples served to separate the two peoples. The _ best 
Koreans then, more than any other people, remain as relics 
of the early population mixed with the later invaders, some 
of them of Yellow blood and some Alpine. Haddon (Wander- 
ings of Peoples, page 337) has drawn attention to the fact 
already suggested by Beelz, that the Koreans probably played 
a part in the peopling of Japan. We know, historically, that 
Korea was a highway through which culture passed to Japan. 
The physical type may have passed the same way, but it 
seems not improbable that at the time that Japan was 
receiving her early inhabitants, other than Ainu, probably 
the whole of the eastern coast of Asia had a more homo- 
geneous population than at present. It must never be for- 
gotten, however, that there is undoubtedly a great connection 
between Korea and Japan, and that it is more than probable 
that the Koreans may justly claim Japan as a daughter 
country. 


CHAPTER VIII 
Arctic ASIA 


IBERIA occupies a vast area in Northern Asia and 
\ forms altogether about a quarter of the whole continent. 
I propose to include in this term what is usually known as 
the great Siberian plain, which stretches from Turania and 
the Urals to the Behring Strait. It forms a triangle; the apex 
is situated near the mouth of the River Obi and one angle 
is near the Aral Sea and the other at the Behring Sea. It is 
bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the west by 
the Ural Mountains, and on the south by a series of great 
mountain ranges, in which the head-waters of the great 
rivers, the Obi, the Yenesei, and the Lena, are situated. 
These frontiers make it very difficult of access. 

On the south it is separated from China by high mountains 
and by deserts; on the north the Arctic Ocean forms an 
impassable barrier and a frozen rampart of the world, less 
easy to traverse than the flaming ramparts which Lucretius 
declared to bound the earth. On the east mountains sepa- 
rate it from one of the stormiest seas in the world. 

Only on the west is the boundary less severe. Here not 
only are the mountains far less impenetrable than our maps 
would suggest, but also the navigable rivers approach com- 
paratively closely to one another. It is along this route, 
and especially through the steppe land in the southern 
regions, that migrating peoples have moved, and the wild, 
conquering hordes of Asia have poured into Europe. 

It may be conveniently divided into two parts. The first 
part is Western Siberia from the Yenesei to the Ural Moun- 
tains, and the second Eastern Siberia. The former is gener- 
ally of tertiary formation, flat, and bounded by mountains 
on the south. The latter is older geologically. The surface 
differs considerably as it rises in places into hilly regions, 
and in the extreme east it is bounded by high mountains. 

192 


ARCTIC ASIA 193 


This broken surface has rendered much of Eastern Siberia 
difficult of access. In spite, however, of geographical diffi- 
culties there is sufficient evidence to warrant the assertion 
that there has at various times been close communication 
between the extreme east of this region and the American 
continent. 

Taken as a whole, the region is very large; it is shut off 
from the south by lofty mountain ranges, but open to 
climatic influences from the north. It is subject, therefore, 
to a cold continental climate, some of the greatest ranges 
of temperature found on the earth’s surface being recorded 
in Siberia; except in certain parts the subsoil remains per- 
manently frozen. 

Only parts have a truly Arctic climate, the rest being sub- 
arctic. The Arctic region includes the Governments of 
Tobolsk and Yeneseisk, except in the south, the territory of 
Yakutsk and part of the old Maritime territory which is 
now included in the Far Eastern Republics. The sub-arctic 
zone has been divided into various subdivisions ; first, the 
southern part of the Tobolsk and the Yeneseisk Govern- 
ments and most of Tomsk. Secondly, the region of the 
Kirghiz steppes in its widest sense, and the south-eastern 
part of Siberia, including Transbaikalia and the Irkutsk 
region. Finally, we may consider the coastal area as a 
separate climatic province. 

The Arctic region has a fairly uniform set of conditions. 
There may be found the greatest extremes of heat and cold 
of any part in the world. The summer is wetter than the 
winter, but the climate as a whole is extremely dry. The 
warm season is extremely short, and even during this period 
the temperature of the air is low. Light is continuous during 
the summer, with a corresponding absence of light during 
the winter, which is the season of extremely cold, dry winds. 
The coldest places are not on the actual Arctic coast, but in 
the region of the Middle Yana River. The first of the sub- 
arctic regions is characterized by a very severe climate which 
often shows great extremes, although the mean annual 
temperature at most stations is about freezing. In the Altai 
Mountains there is in general a severe climate, but some of 
the valleys which are protected from the north by high 
mountains have a warmer climate. In the second region 


ce) 


194 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


the average temperature is about 36° F., that is, distinctly 
warmer. There is little rain and snow, and in summer rain 
is very rare. In South-eastern Siberia there are long periods 
of cold and a rapid transition from cold to warm periods. In 
contrast to the last region the summer is characterized by 
frequent rains and the winters are windless with a scarcity 
of snow. The fourth region is extremely cold, and in Kam- 
chatka very humid. | 

The Arctic is a land of tundra and tayga, a northern 
cold forest, in between which there is a marginal forest of 
dwarf trees and bushes. The southern sub-arctic region 
includes steppe and Alpine country, often with well-watered 
fertile valleys. 

Although considerable work has been done on the arche- 
ology of Siberia, especially in the Yenesei region, we have 
not at present a great deal of information on the early racial 
history of that region. Talko-Hryncewicz (VIII. 1, 50) ex- 
amined a number of early skulls from Oust Kiakhta in 
Transbaikalia. ‘They were found on the left bank of the 
Sava River in a tributary of the Selanga. He came to the 
conclusion that they differed from the modern type of 
Mongolo-Buriats, and describes them as resembling those 
from the Kurgans of Southern Russia. As far as can be 
judged from the descriptions given it would appear that 
these skulls belong to the type which has already been met 
with on the Steppes, the Proto-Nordic. 

Somewhat similar evidence is brought forward by Gorosh- 
chenko (VIII. 5), but his evidence definitely dates from the 
Bronze Age. The material may be divided into two classes, 
masks and crania. The former have the disadvantage, which 
attaches to all works of art, that they cannot pretend to be 
scientifically accurate ; some, however, seem to have been 
death-masks and therefore offer valuable evidence. The 
masks belong to two types, so-called Tagara and Chaatas, 
and it has been suggested that the latter developed out of 
the former. The earlier appear to have features which 
recall the European type of face (‘‘ Aryan” is the word 
used), while the Chaatas masks with broader faces and 
coarser features are said to recall the Mongolian type. Both, 
however, belong to the late Bronze Age and do not appear 
to differ in horizon. It is also more than possible, as Czaplicka 


ARCTIC ASIA 195 


(II. 5) has pointed out, that the difference in form is due 
rather to varying skill in the makers than to varying racial 
types in the models. 

The skull measurements also indicate a uniform type, 
although there are, as might be expected, differences in the 
mean values of the measurements from the two series of 
Kurgans. The crania from Chaatas are slightly longer and 
markedly higher than those from Tagara. But there is 
certainly not sufficient difference to warrant the suggestion 
of such fundamental racial differences as some authors have 
been inclined to believe. They show great uniformity with 
other Bronze Age skulls which are known from the Kurgans 
of Siberia, and with those from the older Kurgans of the 
Moscow district. They resemble those which I have already 
referred to from Transbaikalia. Out of ninety-six skulls 
forty-two were dolichocephalic. There seems to be every 
indication from the form of these skulls that not only do 
they differ from the present inhabitants of the same regions 
to-day, but that they belong to the Proto-Nordiec stock to 
which the other similar skulls have been referred. 

The gap between these ancient peoples and their modern 
successors has not yet been bridged. There has been con- 
tinual movement in Asia, and great changes seem to have 
taken place even in comparatively recent times. The 
classification of the modern peoples suggested by Deniker 
contains two groups. The first group includes the tribes of 
Western Siberia who have some affinities with the Samoyeds 
and the Eastern Finns. These he calls Yeneiseians or Tubas. 
The second group is made up of the peoples in the extreme 
north-east of the continent, whom he calls, following Schrenk 
(VIII. 17), Paleasiatics. Under the former heading he includes 
the Samoyeds of Asia and two distinct groups, the Ostyak of 
the Yenesei and the Tu Po of the Chinese annals, whom he 
calls the Altaians. The more southerly peoples he groups as 
Turks and Mongols. The latter he links up physically with 
certain of the races of Europe, but admits that they are by 
no means homogeneous; the former he considers to be more 
homogeneous physically, but he does not appear to express 
an opinion as to their relationships beyond calling them 
**Mongoloid,” surely a somewhat unsatisfactory adjective 
when applied to the Mongols. 


196 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Czaplicka, in dealing with the ethnology and not the 
physical anthropology, has suggested a further classification 
based on that of Deniker. Objecting to the term Pale- 
asiatics as being meaningless in the sense in which it is 
usually employed, she has two main classes, the Palso- 
Siberians and the Neo-Siberians. The former includes the 
following tribes living in the localities which she has been 
careful to note. It is therefore possible to know fairly 
exactly the connotation which she applies to the various 
tribal names. 

Under the Paleo-Siberians she includes first the Chukchee 
living in North-eastern Siberia between the Anadir River 
and the Arctic Ocean, except in the north-east, and secondly, 
the Koryak who live south of the Chukchee between the 
Anadir River and the central part of the peninsula of Kam- 
chatka, except the coast lands between the Gulf of Anadir 
and Cape Olgontorsky. The third group of peoples are the 
Kamchadal living in the south part of the peninsula which 
bears their name. The Ainu and the Gilyak are included 
by her as Paleo-Siberians, but will be considered in their 
geographical position. The Eskimo form a sixth group; we 
are here only concerned with those Eskimo who live on the 
Asiatic side of the Behring Strait. The Aleut live in the 
Aleutian Islands and therefore are also beyond our terms 
of reference. Czaplicka states that the Yukaghir live be- 
tween the Lower Yana and the Lower Kolyma rivers. They 
are, however, said by Bogoras (IX.10) to be practically 
extinct. The Chuvanzy live on the Upper and Middle 
Anadir River, and the Ostyak of the Yenesei on the Lower 
Yenesei between the Lower Tunguska and the Stony Tun- 
guska as far as Turukhansk. Although, as will be seen, 
some of these tribes differ considerably from one another 
physically, the classification is undoubtedly a convenient one 
from which to start on any consideration of the tribes of 
the Far North. 

The Neo-Siberian tribes form a more miscellaneous group. 
They include first, the Finnie tribes which Czaplicka divides 
into two groups, first, the Ugrian Ostyak from the northern 
part of the Tobolsk district to the mouth of the Obi and 
eastwards as far as the Tomsk district and the Yenesei 
River, and secondly, the Vogul, also called Maniza or Suomi, 


ARCTIC ASIA 197 


between the Middle Obi from Berezov to Tobolsk and the 
Ural Mountains. 

The second group are the Samoyedie tribes who inhabit 
the Arctic region from the mouth of the Khatanga River 
to the Ural Mountains, and thence into Europe to Chiskaya 
Bay. 

The third group contains the Turkish tribes, a grouping 
which has already been shown to be somewhat fallacious 
from the point of view of physique, but extremely convenient 
from an ethnological standpoint. They may be divided into 
two, Turanian and Siberian. The last alone properly con- 
cerns us here, but some of the Turanian Turks have at 
various times occupied this geographical area, and it should 
be noted that the best known tribe is the Kirghiz, reference 
to whom has already been made in a previous chapter. In 
common with so many Central Asiatic tribes the majority 
of these peoples are characterized by extreme brachy- 
cephaly, and seem to have racial affinities which show them 
to belong to the same group as the brachycephalic elements 
among the Buriats. One group of these Kirghiz reported 
on by Ivanovski had a mean cephalic index as high as 89-4. 
It has been stated that the head-breadth among all these 
peoples is fairly constant, but that there is considerable 
variation in the head-length, a point which distinguishes 
them from the brachycephals who are related to the Parecean 
race. 

In great contrast to the Kirghiz group are the more 
Eastern Turks. They include the Yakuts, the Kazan Tatars, 
the Baskir, the Soyotes and their allies. These peoples seem 
to have a somewhat shorter stature, especially the Yakuts. 
But this difference in bodily height is hardly sufficient to 
distinguish them from the Kirghiz group. The cephalic 
index, however, is significantly different. It is remarkably 
uniform and varies between 82 and 83. All observers are 
unanimous on this point and it seems, therefore, that we 
may consider it as a reliable figure. The head-length is 
longer than in the last group, although not to any marked 
degree, but the head-breadth appears to be nearly 20 mms. 
shorter. 

The racial affinities of these peoples are somewhat obscure. 
It is clear that in recent times they have become much mixed 


198 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


with Mongols, but most of them differ physically from the 
Mongols in many ways. It seems probable that they may 
be considered for the most part as a mixture of Alpine man 
with the Paleasiatics, but they probably have the blood of 
other stocks in their veins also. 

It will be seen, therefore, that, as in the case of the Osmanli 
and the Iranian Turks, it is impossible to speak of a Turkish 
race, but that the various “Turks” differ in physique 
according to their geographical surroundings and history, 
which have combined to amalgamate in one linguistic or 
cultural group a number of diverse physical elements. 

Related to these Turkic tribes, both culturally and often 
physically, are the Mongolic tribes of Siberia. They are 
often grouped with the Turks under the name of Turko- 
Mongols. The only representatives of the Mongol tribes in 
Siberia—I am, of course, using the word in its strictly cultural 
sense—are the Khalkhas and Buriats round Lake Baikal. 
The racial position of these peoples has already been con- 
sidered in discussing the ethnology of Mongolia (page 180). 

Lastly, we have a very important group of peoples who, 
linguistically, may be described as Tungusic tribes. The 
Tungus proper are found throughout Eastern Siberia from 
60° E. to the Pacific and from the Arctic to the Chinese 
frontier. There are a number of other Tungusic tribes of 
varying admixture and degrees of importance. The Manchus 
have already been described (page 187). There remain the 
Chapogi between the Lower and the Stony Tunguska, the 
Goldi on the Lower Amur, the Lamut along the coast of the 
Sea of Akhotsk, the Manyarg in the Middle Amur region 
from 126°-160° E., the Oroch on the Lower Amur and the 
Pacific coast, the Reindeer Tungus (Orochan) on the Olekima 
River, the Oroke in Saghalien, and the Solon south of the 
Middle Amur about 120° E. 

Considerable data has been collected on the Paleasiatic 
peoples by the Jesup expedition. Unfortunately their 
sumptuous volumes do not at present contain more than a 
short reference to physical anthropology, and we have 
only a short and valuable paper from the pen of Frau 
Jochelson-Brodsky (VIII. 3). The figures which she has col- 
lected show that the Palxasiatics are by no means a homo- 
geneous group. They present certain features which are 


ARCTIC ASIA 199 


shared by the majority; the most conspicuous is short 
stature. It is possible that this shortness of stature is 
the result of the extremely hard environment to which they 
are subjected rather than actually a racial feature. The 
Chukchee, the Koryak, and the Asiatic Eskimo, and to a 
lesser degree the Kamchadal, are the only peoples who have 
not an extremely low or short stature. The cephalic index 
varies at about 80; some of the tribes, Koryak, Kamchadal, 
and possibly Ostyak, are more dolichocephalic, and some 
observers suggest that the Gilyak are extremely brachy- 
cephalic, the figure quoted by Jochelson-Brodsky being as 
high as 86. When the other cephalic indices are compared 
with one another the difference is by no means as great as 
this. The difference between them is, however, sufficient to be 
significant and to suggest that there may be local differences. 
It has been generally suggested that these peoples are very 
heterogeneous. On first sight this would seem to be a natural 
explanation. Such standard deviations, however, as I have 
been able to calculate from the published figures, suggest that 
they are at least remarkably pure to type. The standard 
deviation, for instance, of the cephalic index of the Koryak 
is under three units, a figure which would elsewhere be con- 
sidered sufficient evidence for suggesting that the people were 
remarkably homogeneous. The same figure for the Chukchee 
is greater, but under three and a half units. It seems prob- 
able, therefore, that whatever their origin these people have 
at least reached a remarkable degree of ethnic unity. 
Shirokogoroff (VI. 5) suggests that at the time of what he 
calls the first ethnic movement, about the fourth millennium 
B.c., they were in occupation of all the region north and east 
of Gobi, but that they had been driven out of this region two 
thousand years later by pressure from Tungusic tribes. In 
origin they seem probably to contain what may be an early 
mixture of Proto-Nordic and an early stock akin to Yellow 
man. The Ainu, who are also classed with the same people, 
probably have a much lesser mixture of the Yellow stock." 
These peoples seem to form the links between the two 
continents of Asia and America. In many features, especially 
the exaggerated prominence of the cheek-bones, greater on 
the whole than is found among many of the representatives 


1 But see page 212, where the racial affinities of the Ainu are discussed, 


200 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


of Yellow man, they recall the Amerind. The latter, however, 
often differs from them, especially in stature, and often, 
though by no means invariably, in head-form. It seems 
probable that at an early date there was an intrusive move- 
ment of peoples from the west, either identical with, or 
the forerunners of, the modern Turki and Mongol-speaking 
peoples who separated this branch of Yellow man from the 
Parecean stock. I have already suggested that in the Korean 
population we possibly have traces of this movement, if 
Shirokogoroff’s suggestion should prove to be correct. 

An interesting point of detail deserves a short considera- 
tion. The American and Greenland Eskimo have attracted 
considerable attention among anthropologists by reason of 
certain anatomical features which suggested either a special 
race or, as others held, specialization to meet the unusual 
natural conditions to which they are subjected. One of these 
characters is dolichocephaly. The Asiatic Eskimo appear to 
differ from the Greenlanders in possessing round heads and 
generally conforming to the Paleasiatic type. The people 
have, as far as I am aware, not yet been sufficiently studied 
to enable a definite pronouncement to be made as to whether 
we have here a different physical type of racial significance, 
or whether the Greenlanders are a specialized branch of the 
Paleasiatics. Here, again, the ethnologist is confronted with 
two physical types which at least superficially appear very 
different, but which are known by the same name. It is of 
interest to note that the Asiatic Eskimo have a character in 
common of considerable importance, namely, extremely 
narrow noses due, no doubt, to the conditions under which 
both live. 

The Palzo-Siberian tribes then represent what is probably 
the oldest surviving stratum on the continent of Northern 
Asia. They seem to differ to a certain, but not very marked 
degree from one another. They may represent a very ancient 
cross between the Proto-Nordic type, or a type akin to this, 
represented to-day by the Ainu, to a lesser or greater extent, 
and an early stock akin to Yellow man, whose exact affinities 
are at present uncertain. -If they do represent such a mix- 
ture it must be of considerable antiquity, as at least in 
some measurements the standard deviations are remarkably 
small, 


ARCTIC ASIA 201 


The Neo-Siberian tribes have recently received a certain 
amount of attention from anthropologists. Roudenko (VIII. 
10, 123) gives their present distribution of the westerly 
tribes. The Samoyeds are found at present in the north-east 
of European Russia and in the most northerly part of the 
basin of the Obi and the Yenesei, the Ostyaks in the Tomsk 
and Tobolsk governments along the borders of the streams 
and rivers. The Voguls are found in the basins of the rivers 
Sasva and Sygva and in the north and north-west districts 
of Tourensk and Tobolsk (Tobolsk government) and in Perm, 
The Samoyeds have about 2 per cent blond hair and light eyes. 
the others a rather lesser percentage than this ; all are about 
157 cms. in height. The Samoyedic type is quite distinct 
from that of the Ostyaks and still more from that of the 
Voguls. They are well-developed muscularly and very 
short. Their heads are brachycephalic, the faces are long 
and broad, with prominent cheek-bones. The forehead is 
relatively narrow, the nose mesorrhine; there is a certain 
amount of alveolar prognathism. The eyes and hair are 
generally dark. 

The Voguls have a longer trunk height than the Samoyeds, 
but the stature of the two peoples is similar. Their heads 
approach dolichocephaly. They have smaller faces and less 
prominent cheek-bones. The forehead is broader and the 
nose has a tendency to approach the platyrrhine. They 
seldom have any prognathism or the Mongolian fold, which 
occurs frequently among the Samoyeds. The hair is some- 
times chestnut. 

The Ostyaks represent an intermediate type; they are 
probably the same race as the Voguls, mixed in places with 
Samoyed blood. 

If the Samoyeds are compared with some of the other 
Altaian peoples, such as the Koibales, the difference of 
physical type is at once apparent. The only people which 
seem to be of the same type are the Uriankhai, who have been 
examined by Goroshchenko. Both have the same colouring 
and head-form, the same height index, long face, big bizy- 
gomatic width, long trunk and short lower limbs. 

The origin and relationship of these interesting peoples is 
uncertain. They differ on the whole from the Paleo-Siberians, 
and almost as much, perhaps, from one another. The term 


202 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Ostyak, for instance, includes not only Ostyaks of the Obi 
and those of the Yenesei, but also other groups. Roudenko 
suggests that there is possibly a relationship between the 
Samoyeds and the Lapps, and that there may have been 
a migration westwards from the Altai region, and finally a 
division of the western and the eastern groups by a migrating 
people from the south. 

There are several features which need special discussion. 
First, these people, like the northern people, are very short 
in stature. It would seem that this may be due to environ- 
ment. Secondly, they usually show features which serve to 
connect them with some type of Yellow man ; they are usually 
round-headed, a feature not always associated in such a 
high degree with Yellow man. They also occasionally show 
dolichocephaly, and sometimes a certain blondness of colour- 
ing. It is more than probable that an important strain in 
their blood is due to an immigration, such as Roudenko 
suggests, from the Altai region. Among such peoples as the 
Voguls there is reason to suggest that the difference in their 
head-form and colouring may be due to an admixture with a 
Nordic or Proto-Nordic type. In any case, these Western 
Asiatic types appear to be the result of considerable racial 
admixture. 

To return to the other Neo-Siberian tribes, the so-called 
Turks may be more conveniently dealt with in discussing the 
other peoples of the same cultural affinities, who although 
not always connected racially are customarily grouped to- 
gether; for the sake of clearness I am classing them together. 

There remains, then, the Tungusic tribes. The physical 
characters of the pure Tungusic peoples is thus described by 
Czaplicka (VIII. 18, 299). She says that they have a stature 
below the average, although they are not so short as the 
Samoyed. This description does not entirely agree with the 
work of other observers who, except in the case of the Tungus 
of Barguzin who are short, report the Tungus as being about 
the same height as the Mongols (163 cms.). The head is 
remarkable for its length, a feature that is commented on by 
all observers. The head-height, except when influenced by 
mixture with the Mongols who have a low head, is usually 
relatively high. The head-breadth is usually also great, so 
that the Tungus have large heads, a fact that is masked by 


ARCTIC ASIA 203 


the cephalic index. The faces are said by Czaplicka to be 
long and the noses narrow. She concludes by saying that 
they are nearest to the Southern Chinese and some Japanese 
types and are unlike the Mongols. 

Shirokogoroff appears to take a rather different view. He 
states (VI. 5, 99) that the fundamental type among the 
Tungus is found among the Tungus of Barguzin, who are 
characterized by, first, a very low stature—about 1550—a 
condition which, as I have observed, does not appear among 
most Tungus groups ; secondly, a low cephalic index, about 
77 (it should here be remarked that most of the cephalic 
indices reported by Jochelson-Brodsky from various sources, 
especially the works of Mainoff, put the cephalic index at 
about 82), and thirdly, low nasal index, 77, a point on which 
all observers are agreed. He also draws attention to the low 
frontal index of these peoples. He believes that this type is 
only “incidental”? among the Chinese, and concludes as a 
final way out of the impasse that the Tungus are, from an 
anthropological standpoint, not a homogeneous people. We 
have, in fact, among them the same state of things which has 
already been met with among the Mongols, and especially 
the Buriats, namely, the fact that cultural and linguistic 
classifications cut across racial divisions. The type of the 
“pure Tungus ”’ will therefore depend on whether a group 
which has not recently been mixed with Mongols or other 
tribes is met with by the observer. 

Shirokogoroff has collected a great deal of interesting 
cultural material about the Tungus which serves to throw 
light on their origins and recent migrations. He suggests 
that they inhabited in early times a warm country, probably 
the great plain of China, whence they were pushed by succes- 
sive migrations to their present habitat. He believes that in 
the early part of the Christian era they were divided into two 
groups by the intrusive Yakuts, who are of Turkish origin. 
Such a theory would negative Czaplicka’s suggestion that 
they are nearest to the Southern Chinese, nor do measure- 
ments tend to support her suggestion. 

The actual racial position of the Tungus is not made 
simpler by the suggestion of these migrations. They are 
clearly extremely mixed and in most cases it is hardly possible 
to disentangle the threads. If we accept Shirokogoroff’s 


204 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


fundamental type as representing the true Tungus it is diffi- 
cult to find any definite type with which we may associate 
them. They clearly differ in the size of their heads from the 
southern aboriginal tribes of China. Their short stature and 
general form seems to separate them from the Proto-Nordies, 
unless we are prepared to disregard both hair and stature, an 
arbitrary proceeding which places too much reliance on the 
cephalic index. It seems more probable that they represent 
an early stock of Yellow man, which has become modified 
both by mixing and also, possibly, by migrations. They 
would, under these circumstances, be akin to the Palzo- 
Siberians, with whom they have certainly mixed, and whom 
it is possible that they have driven out from their old homes. 

Such a suggestion can be considered as only tentative and 
merely a working hypothesis. The Tungus are undoubtedly 
a people of the greatest importance in the ethnology of Eastern 
Asia, and it is to be hoped that crania will be obtained which 
will enable them to be adequately studied. 


CHAPTER IX 
JAPAN 


APAN presents a strong contrast to most of the countries 
with which we have been previously dealing, both as 
regards its geographical nature and the physique of the 
people. The Japanese Empire consists of a long string of 
islands which, if we include the southern extremity of 
Formosa, and the north end of the Chishima group, extends 
between 21°-51°N. The largest islands are known to the 
Japanese as Kiushiu, Shikoku, Honshu, and Hokkaido; the 
last named is usually marked on foreign maps as Yezo. 
Japan proper includes an area of about 150,000 square miles, 
of which the main island, Honshu, forms a very considerable 
portion, being about equal in area to Great Britain. 

The whole country is very much indented and contains a 
very long coast-line with innumerable small islands and bays. 
It is extremely mountainous. The northern ranges belong 
to the system of Saghalien, the southern mountains being 
outliers of the great Kunlun system. The former are usually 
low and rounded and the latter higher and more rugged. In 
between the two the Fuji system forms a bar which runs 
through transversely. There are many volcanic mountains, 
and Japan is particularly liable to earthquakes. The rivers 
are usually short and rapid, and so are on the whole of little 
service for communications except for short distances. This 
fact is explained by stating that about three-quarters of 
Japan are mountainous, and of the remainder 70 per cent 
is composed of uplands. 

Owing to the long belt of islands the temperature of Japan 
ranges from a tropical to an Arctic climate. In Japan proper, 
however, this range is much less and the climate, except in 
the north of Hokkaido, may be considered temperate, the 
mean annual temperature being 48° at Aomori and 78° at 
Kagoshima, In more general terms we may say that the 

205 


206 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


mean annual temperature of the main island varies according 
to station from about 50°F. to 60°F. There is little snow 
in South-west Japan, but elsewhere there is an annual fall. 
In summer the greatest rainfall is on the Pacific coast, the 
condition being reversed in winter. Owing to these condi- 
tions the flora is abundant and on the whole is that of a 
warm climate. 

The Japanese islands, although not situated at any great 
distance from the coast of the mainland, are sufficiently far 
away to be effectually separated, the only point of contact 
being Korea. It is probably due to these circumstances that 
the Japanese have developed a physique which differentiates 
them effectually from their neighbours. It is also worthy of 
remark that geographically Japan proper is divided into two 
parts, the separation of Hokkaido from the rest being prob- 
ably of ancient date. Climatic conditions in this island are 
also more extreme than in the rest of Japan, the result has 
been that although the Japanese have driven out their pre- 
decessors from the rest of Japan proper their colonization of 
Hokkaido is only recent. 

Owing to the work of Japanese scientists we are better 
informed on the archeology of Japan than of any other 
country in that part of Asia. The earliest graves appear all 
to be “neolithic ”’ in character, that is to say there is an 
entire absence of metals in the graves, but somewhat remark- 
able a coarse pottery is usually present. 

Some of the most important finds of human remains are 
discussed by Hamada (IX. 5). From the site at Ko, in 
Kawachi province, seven neolithic skeletons were excavated. 
The calvarias much resemble those of the Ainu. The faces, 
as compared with the Ainu, are broad and low, the orbits are 
low, the nose broad and the palates short and broad. The 
facial and palatal length is shorter than in the Ainu and the 
faces are more orthognathous. The vertebral column is short 
in relation to the limbs, but in comparison with the modern 
Japanese the extremities are short in relation to the trunk. 
The cervical part of the column is comparatively strong and 
large. These characters, Koganei believes, are also char- 
acteristic of the skeletons from the shell mounds which have 
been ascribed to the Ainu. The femora are pilastered and 
the tubie markedly platyenemic. Some skulls appear to 





JAPAN 207 


approach the Ainu form, but the facial length is less and 
the maxilla is smaller. 

A larger number of skeletons were discovered in Bitchu 
and Idzumi. All belong to the same type and their characters 
are of interest. The flatness of the femur and of the humerus 
in the middle of the shaft are said to be less marked in the 
neolithic skeletons than in the Ainu. On the other hand, the 
neolithic bones represent more prominently the characters 
which distinguish the Ainu from the Japanese. Hamada 
concludes, therefore, that the Stone Age people seem not 
properly to have been the ancestors of the present Ainu, but 
probably in many cases a race intermediate between the 
Ainu and the Japanese. 

Matsumoto (IX. 2, 50) takes a rather different view. He 
believes that among the Stone Age people at least three types 
can be distinguished. These he calls, from the sites where 
they were found, Aoshima, Miyato and Tsukumo. In the 
first type the adult males are about five feet four inches in 
height ; they have large heads and are either dolichocephalic 
or mesocephalic. Skeletons of this type have been found at 
Aoshima and on Miyato Island. The Miyato type has been 
discovered at Tsukumo and Ko. These seem, Matsumoto 
suggests, to have been dwarfs, the adult male stature being 
two inches less than that of the previous type. They are 
either brachycephalic or mesocephalic, those from Tsukumo 
being shorter headed than those from Miyato. Finally, there 
is a tall type found at Tsukumo and Ko. They have a stature 
among the adult males of between five feet six and five feet 
seven; they vary between meso- and_brachy-cephalic. 
Matsumoto believes that the first two types are represented 
among the Ainu to-day. 

It will be seen that here two views are put forward, using 
much the same material, which are entirely opposed. The 
one associates the type of ancient man with the Ainu, the 
other considers him to belong to a different race. I am 
unfortunately hampered by the fact that most of Hamada’s 
report is written in Japanese and that only parts are in 
English and German, and therefore I have found it difficult 
to be sure of his position. Matsumoto’s paper was, he says, 
written from memory in America, and therefore may not 
represent his considered opinions. 


208 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


The first point to be considered is whether the neolithic 
people really belong to the same physical type as the Ainu or 
not. The cultural evidence suggests differences. Apart from 
recent introduction, the Ainu do not appear to have had any 
knowledge of pottery, their vessels being made of cherry bark. 
The neolithic people, however, undoubtedly had pottery. 
This in itself should not be an insuperable difficulty as we 
only know of the Ainu in Hokkaido, and it is quite possible 
that the same people in the main island may have been in a 
much more advanced condition of culture than those on the 
more northerly island. 

It would appear that the principal objection put forward 
by Hamada to the association of the older remains with those 
of the Ainu is the form of the tibia and of the femur. Such 
matters as platymeria and platyenemia, however, can hardly 
be considered as being definite racial characters. Although 
their exact origin is at present uncertain it would appear that 
they are probably due rather to habit of posture and gait 
than to actual racial distinctions. I have found that in early 
British bones from sites near Oxford that platymeria and 
platyenemia were extremely common, apparently in certain 
classes of the population ; they do not occur in the popula- 
tion to-day, which in many other ways is closely allied to 
their predecessors. The parallel is not, of course, an entirely 
good one, as the Ainu do not represent a civilized community, 
but at least it proves that we may get groups of the same 
stock which differ in these particulars but which certainly 
belong to the same race. Even Hamada, on the whole, is 
inclined to believe that the skulls of both races are very 
similar. After an examination, necessarily somewhat brief, 
of the skeletal remains and of the Ainu, in the Anatomical 
Museum of the University of Kyoto, I succeeded in convincing 
myself that there was no essential differences between the 
two types. There are certainly differences of detail, but 
these are no greater than might be ascribed to the differences 
in habit of the two peoples. Otherwise they appear to have 
been the same race. This conclusion agrees well with that of 
Matsumoto. I am not convinced that the latter’s three 
ancient types can be accepted. It should be noted that the 
types overlap in the same burial-grounds. 

The work of the Biometric School has shown how great, 


JAPAN 209 


under certain circumstances, the normal variation can be. 
We have at present no statistical record of ancient peoples, 
although Koganei has carefully studied the Ainu. Certainly 
in many ways type A and type B appear to be variations of 
one single type, the shorter being more round-headed than 
the taller. The evidence from Ko is altogether insufficient 
to warrant any deductions being drawn from it, as only seven 
skeletons have, as far as I am aware, been excavated. From 
Tsukumo a larger number have been reported. 

It seems better, therefore, until we have further evidence, 
to suggest at least provisionally that we have in Japan a 
series of finds of a people in a neolithic stage of culture of 
unknown date, who are of the same racial stock as the modern 
Ainu. There is much evidence which suggests that the Ainu 
were the predecessors of the Japanese over all Japan, as they 
undoubtedly were in some parts. Whether these neolithic 
peoples were the direct predecessors or a previous wave of 
Ainu peoples is at present uncertain. 

Matsumoto has put forward the very ingenious theory in 
regard to the migrations and distributions of these types. 
He suggests that the Aoshima type was the first to arrive in 
Japan. They existed in North-eastern Japan as a pure race 
and as a race mixed with the next type in the Middle Stone 
Age. The present Ainu of Hokkaido are said to be similar to 
this mixed race, and the Ainu of the Kurils and Saghalien to 
the autochthonous pure type. 

The next to arrive were the Miyato dwarf type, together 
with other peoples possibly of similar racial stock. This 
second type is present in Japan to-day in the north central 
part of the main island, and kindred stocks also found in 
South-western Japan. 

The Tsukumo type is said to be found in Japan from 
the Middle Stone Age onwards. To-day it is scattered in 
every part of Japan, but is found especially in the northern 
part of Western Japan. The last type to arrive was of a 
“Mongolian ”’ stock, called the Okayama type, whose 
significance will be discussed in dealing with the Japanese. 
The people with whom they mixed were for the most part 
the later comers, who naturally were to be found in the 
more accessible regions, and therefore the earliest arrivals 
have survived and kept their independence to the last. 

a 


210 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


This very ingenious scheme depends on the definite assump- 
tion that we can be sure of three physical types; I have 
shown, however, that at present we have hardly sufficient 
evidence to warrant such an assumption. It should be noted 
that on the whole it is independent of the cultural changes, 
for at least three periods can be recognized in the Stone Age 
of Japan; the Aoshima type are associated with the early 
period, but all the other stocks with the Middle Stone Age, 
except the type which is characterized as Mongolian, is in 
every respect different. At present, then, we cannot look on 
it as more than an ingenious theory, which will doubtless be 
modified or amplified when more evidence is collected. 

There remain, then, the modern inhabitants of Japan. 
They can be divided into the Ainu and the Japanese, who are 
very different racially even though it is more than probable 
that there is much Ainu blood in modern Japan. The Ainu 
are well built and extremely stocky with a short rounded 
thorax and very thick heavy ribs. The skin-colour is dark, 
rather than yellow; they often have olive skins, and this is 
the usual colour, apparently, on the unexposed parts of the 
body. The men are extraordinarily hairy all over. The 
women have thick short black hair on the arms and legs, but 
none on the body. The hair on the head is more or less 
straight, but the ends are inclined to curl both in the men 
and women. The beard in the younger men is wavy, in 
the older it becomes almost curly. It is of a very different 
texture from that of the Japanese; the latter have a straight 
silky type, the Ainu hair is coarse, black, and hard to the 
touch. 

The eyes are not oblique, but like those of the European. 
In colour they are usually of a clear brown ; among the men 
I have seen hazel eyes,! they probably also occur among the 
women, but I have not seen them. They usually have a little 
wisp of lanugo-like hair in the inner corner of the eye. 

It has been suggested that the Mongolian fold does not 
occur. I observed it, however, in one individual. In the 
remainder I found on the outer aspect of the nose, just anterior 
to the inner canthus of the eye, a curious little ridge of skin 


1 Montandon makes a similar observation. Out of ninety individuals of 
both sexes, four men had eyes with a greenish or violet tinge, the latter in 
one individual (LX. 8, 233). 





JAPAN 211 


which may be a remnant of a fold, it never stood out from 
the level of the skin more than an eighth of an inch. 

The stature is usually short, about 158 cms. for the men 
and 148 forthe women. The length of the span has been very 
differently reported by various observers and no reliable 
figure is therefore available. 

The head is usually large and dolichocephalic with an 
index of about 76, the females having a slightly broader 
head. In spite of this index, however, the absolute 
breadth is quite large. The face is broad but not flat. The 
forehead is high sometimes, but not usually, with the hair 
quite low. The temporal ridges are usually well developed 
and the occiput is prominent. The eyebrow region is not 
overhanging in the sense of forming a big bar, but it presents 
an appearance of massiveness owing to the depression which 
usually occurs at the root of the nose. 

The nose is straight, but with a curious convexity at the 
extremity. Although some cases of extremely narrow noses 
occur this is not usual, and some of the people have extremely 
broad noses. The statement which has found its way into 
so many textbooks that they are leptorrhine is due to the 
report by Koganei, whose figures, without any qualification, 
are included by Martin in his handbook. Koganei, instead of 
measuring across the nostrils, measured the nose at the base, 
getting, of course, a very small measurement. There is as 
great variation as in most races, but while examining Ainu 
I was surprised how very leptorrhine some of them were. 

The region of the nasion, that is at the root of the nose, is 
of special note. I have already said that among those which 
I examined the Mongolian fold occurred only in one case, a 
woman. They have a slightly lesser width in between the 
eyes than the Japanese, and in the case of the men a little 
lanugo in the inner corner of the eye. I failed to see this 
among the women. At about a centimetre from the inner 
corner of the eye twenty-seven out of twenty-eight adult 
women had a ridge of skin, to which I have already referred. 
This ridge of skin seems to coincide closely in position with 
the Mongolian fold, and I can only consider it as a kind of 
vestigial fold. It is about an eighth of an inch high. Those 
authors who state briefly that the Mongolian fold is absent 
or extremely small have neglected to stress this rather curious 


212 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


fact, which does not appear unless a careful examination is 
made. 

There is a considerable massing of bone in this region, so 
that the eyes appear to be very deep set, but often, unless one 
looks carefully, one is inclined to think that the apertures are 
perfectly European in shape. The whole build of this part 
of the skull is peculiar, and as far as I have seen character- 
istic. When making observations on the Ainu one is struck 
by the massiveness of the bones. The head is very heavy. 
The ridges are well developed; frequently, especially among 
the men, there is a marked ridge which, without being 
scaphocephaly, suggests that form. This is probably due to 
the great development of the temporal muscles. The cheek- 
bones are high rather than massive, and the breadth of the 
face seems to be due to the massiveness of the jaw. The 
hands are short and broad. 

The racial position of the Ainus is a question of great 
interest. There is every probability that they are very 
different from all the other Oriental races. Montandon, the 
most recent writer on the subject who has studied the Ainu 
on the spot, says of them: “‘Malgré quelques traits legerement 
mongolisés, l’Ainou, mieux que tout essai de reproduction 
artificielle, est aujourdhui le meilleur portrait, et certaine- 
ment le descendant le moins evolue, d’un rameau de la 
souche précaucasique qui, a l’époque palzo-néolithique, 
habitait les contrées nordiques de ’Euraise”’ (X. 8). 

That the Ainu are of a stock akin to the races of Europe 
is probable. Anthropologists have in the past been 
inclined to limit those stocks to those which are actually 
represented in Europe to-day. It seems manifestly impos- 
sible to class the Ainu with any of those. Their long heads 
might suggest at first a kinship with the long-headed branches 
of that stock. They are, however, too dark to be called 
Nordic and of very different anatomical structure to the 
Mediterranean branch. The members of the latter are 
slenderly built and small-headed with comparatively slight 
bones. We have seen that the build of the Ainu is the very 
antithesis of this. 

If the Ainu, then, are of a similar stock to the European 
races it is necessary to refer them to a separate division to 
those which at present survive in Europe. There is no in- 





JAPAN 213 


herent difficulty in this; we have already seen that several 
of the races of Asia, although apparently allied to the races 
of Europe, will not fit into any cast-iron scheme of classifica- 
tion. The Ainu, however, represent a special case and appear 
to differ from the other stocks almost more than these differ 
from one another. Although the other groups differ from 
the European stocks, yet they do at least to a certain degree 
correspond to the same general divisions. 

The suggestion, then, that they represent a prehistoric 
stock seems at first sight to be very suggestive. To a high 
degree, however, there seems to have been specialization 
among the Ainu. Under these circumstances, then, we can 
hardly admit them to be the last survivals of prehistoric 
Europe. Nor does there appear to be among the early races 
of Europe any that corresponds exactly to the Ainu. It 
seems, therefore, best to suggest that the Ainu stand to the 
present races of Europe, not in an avuncular relationship, 
descendants, closely allied to the prehistoric stocks, but 
rather as cousins, that is a people, probably descended from 
the same stock as the races of Europe, but in certain respects 
less differentiated and in other ways more specialized. 

It should be noted that culturally the Ainu are extremely 
primitive. They are practically in a pre-neolithic, or at the 
most a transitional stage to a neolithic type of culture. 
Only the women practice agriculture and their implements 
were made of shells, the men were primitive hunters. They 
knew of no pottery, although there is the possibility of this 
art having been forgotten. Owing to this primitive nature 
of their culture and their physique they have been associated 
by some anthropologists with the Australians. 

A careful examination of the skeletons of these two groups 
has convinced me that this association is unsatisfactory. 
Not only are the crania, on which I believe the opinion was 
based, extremely different, but the other bones of the skeleton, 
few of which appear to have come to Europe, are still more 
differentiated. The Australian skeletons, such as I have 
seen, are all comparatively slender. I have already called 
attention to the massiveness of Ainu bones. 

There remains, then, the necessity of linking up the Ainu 
with the other races of the same family. The task is the 
more difficult, as we have at present but few reports of the 


214 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


archeology of the vast intervening district. Such reports 
as have been made from some of the graves of early date 
which have been opened suggest that the early inhabitants 
differed in many respects from those which are at present 
living in the same districts, and it seems that some of them 
may suggest features which we are inclined to associate with 
the Ainu. The links are at present far from being complete, 
but there is at least a suggestion that the ‘‘ Proto-Nordic ” 
race were occupying Northern Asia before the expansion of 
Yellow man and the probably subsequent, or possibly almost 
simultaneous, expansion of Alpine man. 

We must wait, however, till the archeology of Central 
Asia is better known before we can say whether this theory 
is correct or not. In any case, it seems probable that the 
Ainu have good claim to be considered members of this race 
and the aborigines of Eastern Asia. They have probably 
affected to a greater or lesser degree some of the neighbour- 
ing peoples, especially the Japanese, and also probably some 
of the tribes of the Amur region, notably the Gilyaks. 


The Japanese themselves present in many ways an ethno- 
logical problem not less interesting than that of the Ainu. 
The older ethnologists, of whom the most distinguished 
representative was Baelz, recognized two types. The fine 
type, he says, is relatively long-headed, with an elongated 
face, straight eyes in the men, more or less oblique and 
‘“*Mongoloid ’’ in the women; a thin, convex or straight nose 
is found, especially among the upper classes. The coarse 
type with a thick-set body, rounded skull, broad face with 
prominent cheek-bones, slightly oblique eyes, flattish nose, 
and wide mouth is characteristic of the lower classes. Baelz 
(IX. 13) believed these two types to have been the result 
of crossings between ‘‘ Mongol” sub-races, northern and 
southern, and ‘“‘ Indonesian,” or even ‘“‘ Polynesian ”’ elements, 
the influence of the Ainu being shown only in Northern 
Nippon. This opinion is followed by Deniker. The exact 
meaning of Northern Nippon is uncertain in this context; 
probably Baelz meant Northern Japan, i.e. the island of 
Hokkaido. 

Deniker suggests that “it might be supposed that the 
representatives of the first type were descendants of tribes 


JAPAN 215 


who had come by way of Korea and the Tsushima and Tki- 
shima islands in the south-west of Nippon (in this context 
obviously the main island) at some period unknown, but at 
any rate very remote. As to the coarse type, its repre- 
sentatives are perhaps descended from the warriors who 
invaded about the seventh century B.c. (according to a 
doubtful chronology) the west coast of the island of Kiu-siu 
and then Nippon. These invaders, intermixing with the 
aborigines of unknown stock, founded the kingdom of 
Yamato, and drove back the Ainus towards the north.” 

This traditional ethnology, which has found its way into 
most European textbooks, has been assailed in Japan by 
Hasebe (IX. 8), Matsumoto (IX. 2), and others, and recently 
in England by Morant (I.14). Hasebe has suggested two 
types, Ishikawa and Okayama, and Matsumoto two more, 
which he has called Chikuzen and Satsuma types. 

The characters of these types may be summarized briefly. 
The Ishikawa has very short stature, under five feet two 
inches, a medium cephalic index, with a numerical value of 
about 78, a straight, short face with feebly-developed jaws. 
The Okayama has tall stature, relative to the mean stature 
of Japan, the actual value being over five feet five inches. 
The head is relatively broad, with a cephalic index of about 
82, a deep face and well-developed jaws. 

The other two types are variants of these. The Chikuzen 
is tall with a medium head, and the Satsuma type has short 
stature and a broad head. Both these two types appear to 
have short faces. 

The distribution of these types is as follows. The first 
type is found in the north of the middle part and the north- 
eastern part of the main island. The second type belongs 
to the coastal districts round the Inland Sea and the neigh- 
bourhood of Kyoto and in the west of the middle part of 
the main island. The third type is found in the northern 
part of Kiushiu, and the Satsuma type in the southern parts 
of both Kiushiu and Shikoku. 

Matsumoto believes that the first type is an altered 
survivor of his Miyato type of the Stone Age, and the 
Chikuzen of the Tsukumo type. The Okayama type, Hasebe 
has suggested, is the Korean type of the Mongolian stock. 

The suggestion apparently of these types is that we have 


216 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


differentiated early stocks which have been already discussed, 
and one final type coming from Korea, which survives in 
Japan and which, or at least kinsmen of which, affected all 
the other types. How far does our evidence bear out these 
theories ? There is every probability that several types are 
found in Japan, probably at least three. The division 
suggested by Baelz is a convenient one and one that is, 
I think, justified by observation. Baelz suggested that 
the slenderness of the “fine”? type was due to what he 
considered to be Manchu-Korean influence. I do not feel 
that the modern Japanese classification lays enough stress 
on this very interesting element in the population, whatever 
its origin may have been. It is presumably what Hasebe 
has called the “‘ Okayama” type. This, however, does not 
entirely agree with other observations, for the fine type 
tends to have a long head, whereas the Okayama has a round 
head. The Koreans are also round-headed and the Okayama 
type agrees very well with them; the Manchus have also 
a round head. 

It is impossible, therefore, to accept the Manchu-Korean 
type of Baelz as corresponding in any way closely to the 
inhabitants of that area; yet the slender type does seem 
really to exist, and possibly, at least to a small extent, 
corresponds to the Chikuzen type, although the identification 
is not certain, as such Japanese authorities as I have read 
do not seem to pay any attention to this classification. 
That the Satsuma type describes accurately at least a part 
of the Japanese “‘ coarse” type is probable. 

All the types appear to possess certain features in common. 
The hair is always black. Curly hair may be found occasion- 
ally, especially in the northern part of the main island. It 
is almost certainly due to admixture of Ainu blood. There 
is a noticeable difference of stature between the sexes. 
Although the general stature is short, there appears to be 
considerable variation in the stature, especially of the men. 
The parts of the body have rather different proportions than 
among Europeans. The limbs are shorter and the head is 
larger. In spite of the shortness of the limbs the forearm 
is relatively long. The cephalic index is variable; as I have 
shown, the proportions of the face are variable. The colour 
of the eyes is practically always a dark brown. There is a 


PLATE VIII 





A PEASANT WOMAN FROM SOUTH JAPAN 


[face p. 216 





JAPAN pe 


considerable distance between the eyes, and although the 
bridge of the nose is normally low, cases of almost aquiline 
noses occur. The cheek-bones are high, but there appears 
in this character also to be considerable variation. 

The skin-colour is very variable, the men usually being 
rather darker than the women. Some of the latter seem to 
be quite fair, and usually in these cases have a rosy spot on 
the cheeks, some are of a dusky yellow-brown. 

In a country like Japan, with so much diversity of geo- 
graphical feature, variations in racial type might be expected 
quite apart from the original stocks. This diversity un- 
doubtedly exists, but it does not appear at present that the 
types have been quite clearly differentiated. There would 
seem to be short and taller types and mesocephalic and 
brachycephalic types. The fourfold division which I have 
detailed above is the logical conclusion from such data. It 
would, however, appear that this division is somewhat 
arbitrary, but until we have further evidence it may be the 
best that has been put forward in periodicals in a Western 
language. 

There remains the question of Japanese origins. The 
evidence seems too strong to reject the suggestion that the 
basis of the population is of a stock closely akin to the Ainu. 
This ancient stock has been very much overlaid with later 
accretions. The result has been to change the general 
character of the population, so that it is to-day predomi- 
nantly of the type of Parecean man. It cannot but be 
recognized, however, that the Japanese are a very remark- 
able people, differing very considerably both in physique 
and temperament from other Asiaties. It is not beyond the 
bounds of possibility that they owe this distinction to the 
blood of the very barbarians whom they profess to despise, 
and against some of whom they carried out such a long and 
bloody struggle. 

The elements which have provided these later accretions 
are difficult in the present state of our knowledge to dis- 
entangle. I have already suggested that there is probably 
in Japan an element which is akin to the inhabitants of the 
opposite mainland, Korea and Manchuria. The association 
of Japan and Korea is natural, and the Japanese claim to 
that country which they now hold is based not only on force 


218 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


of arms, but on ancient Japanese tradition. We know that 
there has been continual cultural migrations by this path 
and, indeed, the whole basis of Japanese art, which has so 
delighted the Western world, sprang from Chinese influences 
which came by this path. When we find, then, that there is 
a type in Japan which agrees closely with the Korean type, 
the matter need cause no astonishment. This type appears 
to have entered Japan in comparatively late times; there is 
no trace of such a type in the Stone Age, but it appears in 
Karly Metal Age burials. It will probably be possible later 
to trace the arrival of this type in Japan. 

As I have already shown in dealing with the mainland, it 
seems probable that this type has resulted from the mixture 
of Yellow man with a strain distantly akin to Alpine man. 
It is probably to this later mixture that these tribes and 
peoples have such markedly brachycephalic heads, a char- 
acteristic which does not appear to be found among the 
examples of Yellow man who have no such admixture. 

These two strains, however, do not seem sufficient to 
account for the character of the Japanese, and Baelz sug- 
gested that there was an admixture of Malay blood. There 
can be no doubt that there is in Japan some southern in- 
fluence. That it can be Malayan, in the sense of the people 
who now speak Malayan languages, is unlikely. All the 
people of South-eastern Asia show, as I have pointed out, 
an admixture of two strains, one essentially extremely long- 
headed and the other tending towards brachycephaly. If 
the Japanese were the literal descendants of these peoples 
it is to be expected that we should find in them traces 
of Nesiot blood. There does not appear to be any clear 
indications of such admixture. If we carry the enquiry 
a stage further back it would seem as though we were 
nearer the question of Japanese origins. Any traveller 
in certain parts of Southern China cannot help being 
struck by the resemblance in physique of some of the 
people there and of some of the Malayan peoples. I have 
already suggested that adopting the term Proto-Malayan, 
we have a convenient term for some of those branches of 
Yellow man in South-eastern Asia who have become differ- 
entiated in the Dutch Indies and elsewhere into a type which 
contrasts strongly with their Nesiot neighbours, 


JAPAN 219 


It seems not impossible that this branch of Yellow man 
may be also responsible for a great part of the Japanese 
stock. This would serve to reconcile two theories which 
appear at first sight to be totally opposed, the first that the 
Japanese have a strong Malayan strain in them, and the 
second that the Japanese link up more closely with Southern 
China than with the Dutch Indies. The first is the more 
generally accepted theory, the second has been suggested 
recently by Morant. 

This type may possibly be a comparatively undiffer- 
entiated form of Yellow man. It is suggested, therefore, 
tentatively, that the third element in the Japanese people 
is a type which is akin to the Proto-Malayan, but which is 
probably best represented to-day among such people as the 
inhabitants of the hills of South Fukien. It is more than 
possible that we should say that the Japanese are not the 
direct descendants of the Southern Chinese, but rather are 
the descendants of the peoples who are racially akin to 
them. 

This solution of the complicated problem is far from com- 
plete, for we do not know at present when the main type of 
the population was changed, or when (to use Matsumoto’s 
somewhat uncouth adjective) Japan became ‘ Mongolian- 
ized.” We shall probably have to look for evidence of this 
sort in the graves at the end of the Stone Age, or possibly as 
late as the beginning of the Early Metal Age. It would be 
simpler to suggest that the only elements in the population 
were Ainu and Korean, but this solution, which appears to 
be that which principally finds favour among Japanese 
scientists, still leaves in doubt certain rather puzzling elements 
in the population. 


CHAPTER X 
SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA AND INDONESIA 


N this chapter I propose to deal with both the eastern- 
most of the peripheral countries of Asia and the islands 
which connect Asia with Australia and Indonesia, and to 
include for my purposes not only the true peninsula country 
of Cambodia, Cochin China, Annam and Tonkin, that is 
what is usually known as French Indo-China, but also Siam 
and Burma on the west, and Indonesia on the east. Burma 
forms part of the Indian Empire, both administratively and 
politically, but it is separated from it both geographically 
and ethnologically. The western part of the area forms the 
outermost extension to the south of the countries whose 
culture is based on Chinese civilization ; the eastern, either 
culturally or physically, is related both to China and India. 
In spite, therefore, of diversity of political situation and 
geographical detail it forms a convenient unit for anthropo- 
logical purposes. 

The area is situated at the foot of the Tibeto-Yunnan 
plateau and, except for part of Burma, lies within the tropics, 
but owing to the influence of the monsoons much of it has 
a comparatively cold winter climate. 

Burma is separated from India by the sea and by ranges 
of hills. It includes an area of over 260,000 square 
miles. Geographically it has five divisions, Central Burma, 
Tenasserim, Arakan, the Chin Hills, and the Shan country. 
Central Burma includes the great delta of the Irrawaddy, 
hot and moist in climate, and devoted for the most part to 
rice cultivation. Much of the land is inundated to a great 
extent, and the habitations are built on such available plots 
of higher land which can be found. North of this region 
part of the country is still in the hot moist belt, and all along 
the rivers are alluvial plains, though there occur in this 
division arid tracts and large mountainous areas, often 
covered with luxuriant forests. 


220 


SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA 221 


South and east of this district lies Tenasserim and Karenni. 
Within there is a narrow strip of coast land, but the greater 
part of it consists of rugged mountains covered with dense 
tropical forests, although it also possesses well-watered 
alluvial plains. Arakan includes a coastal district with 
tropical mangrove creeks backed by broken hilly country, 
usually densely forested. 

The Chin Hills consist of an area of considerable elevation, 
varying from about 5000 to 9000 feet above sea-level. It 
is covered with dense forests, mostly of pine, and generally 
temperate in character, remarkable in places for the profusion 
of the rhododendrons. 

Finally, the Shan States form an immense area of over 
50,000 square miles. In general form they may be said to 
consist of a plateau between 3000 and 4000 feet high. 
Most of this plateau is made up of broken hill country, 
usually well-wooded and often cut into dense ravines, and 
divided into two parts by the River Salween. It forms the 
connecting link between Yunnan and Lower Burma. 

From the Shan States, and directly through them, Chinese 
civilization passed into Siam, which forms the lowlands 
and the last step down from the great plateau. To-day, 
Siam is practically restricted to the great valley which 
debouches at Bankok, and is formed by the Menam and its 
tributaries. It consists of a gentle slope which is about 150 
miles wide and nearly 650 miles long. Siam extends south 
into the Malay peninsula, and therefore forms a link not only 
with China but also with Malaysia. The greater part of the 
country consists of wild and untamed jungle. There is only 
one road through it, the valley of the Menam, which appears 
to have formed the path for racial migrations. 

To the east of Siam and the Shan States lies the French 
sphere of influence and actual French possessions. This is 
also bounded on the north by the high escarpment of Yunnan 
and the south frontier of the Chinese province of Kwangsi. 
To the east and south it is bounded by the sea. This area 
consists in general terms of two deltas, that of the Mekong 
and of the Red River, and of a narrow coastal strip. 

The northern part of the Malay Peninsula is very little 
known, but surveys have been made of most of the southern 
part. In general terms the peninsula consists of low-lying 


229 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 

land with mountain ranges in echelon, lying slightly oblique 
to the general direction of the land, which is north-north- 
west and south-south-east. There are also isolated hills 
apart from the general ranges. The main range consists of 
granite with a cap of sedimentary rocks, the highest of which, 
Kerbau, is over 7000 feet high. A characteristic feature 
of the country is the isolated limestone hills, some of which 
are as high as 2000 feet. Owing to the comparative narrow- 
ness of the peninsula the rivers are short and, filled by 
the abundance of the tropical rains, rush over steep slopes into 
the sea. They bring with them a great deal of sediment which 
is deposited on the coast, and this, at least on the southern 
side, is mostly muddy. The rivers are numerous, the three 
principal ones being the Perak, the Pahang, and the Kelantan. 
These and the numerous other rivers of the peninsula are 
of the greatest importance to man. In a country where so 
much of the land is, or was, virgin tropical forest the rivers 
form the only road. They provide the little patches of 
ground along their banks which can be rescued from the 
jungle and irrigated for the rice crops. 

But the jungle itself is the most dominating factor in 
man’s life, especially of the primitive peoples who are true 
jungle dwellers and have not learned like the more civilized 
Malays to wander into more open country. They live in a 
climate which, though there are slight variations, has a singular 
monotony. The forest is dark and very damp. Though the 
temperatures are not so excessive as, for instance, in the 
neighbourhood of the Persian Gulf, the very slight daily 
change makes the annual mean very high. The forest 
presents to the stranger the appearance of a prison, beautiful 
but oppressive, one from which to escape. But the forest 
nomad seems to be lost away from the protecting influence 
of the great forest trees which seem to run up to an indefinite 
height, really not much more than 60 or 70 feet without a 
branch. These people seldom leave the forest, and it would 
be hard to find an environment which stamps itself more 
on the imagination than that of these forests. The forests, 
however, only extend to a certain height and beyond this 
the vegetation becomes temperate, so that one may see the 
familiar type of vegetation, violets and scrub oak straggling 
down the mountain-side to meet the orchids and the tree 


SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA 223 


ferns. One of the most characteristic things of this type 
of scenery and climate is the way in which each day seems 
to epitomize the annual seasons of our own climate. Just 
before dawn there is a nip and promise in the air, and I have 
even heard the song of a bird which sounded quite spring- 
like at this time. High noon has a silence like midsummer, 
while the landscape shimmers in the heat. Things become 
parched and tired, or the rain settles in during the afternoon, 
and with the cooling of the evening there is almost the feel- 
ing that a whole season’s changes happened since we heard 
the spring note of the bird at dawn. 

The hand of man has cleared much of this virgin forest. 
There are now rice fields and plantations, but much of the 
forest still remains in the peninsula and in the archipelago. 
At higher altitudes there are in places rolling downs. 

The archipelago is a direct but partially submerged con- 
tinuation of the peninsula. Some of the islands have become 
separated within comparatively recent times; others are 
ancient and long isolated fragments of a former continental 
extension. 

Although there has been considerable dispute in matters 
of detail, both geologists and biologists agree in dividing the 
East Indies into two parts, an eastern and a western. The 
western is closely linked up with Asia, of which it may be 
described as a submerged part. The eastern, at probably 
a much remoter period, formed part of the continental mass 
of Australia. Many of the changes which have taken place 
seem to have occurred since man inhabited the area. 

Although the faunal and floral divisions are probably 
ancient, the division has been accepted by ethnologists as 
representing a definite means of classifying the physical 
types of the peoples inhabiting the area. In the western 
parts the affinities of the peoples are on the whole Asiatic ; 
in the eastern half an entirely different type of peoples 
predominate, their most noticeable character, the darkness 
of their skins, having given rise to the term Melanesia, the 
Islands of the Black Peoples. 

It is true that the human and the faunal and floral dis- 
tributions are not in entire correlation. Celebes, parts of 
the Moluccas and some of the islands which form a long 
chain east of Java are Asiatic in affinities, but on the whole 


224 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


the agreement of ethnological and other biological types 
is greater than the disagreement. It is also of interest to 
note that religion and social customs on the whole follow 
the same divisions. The islands, for instance, which have the 
greatest remains of ancient Hindu temples are those which 
belong geographically to Asia. Celebes and the other eastern 
islands have not been shown at present to possess any such 
ruins. 

The Philippines occupy a peculiar position as two series 
of islands link them up with Borneo, which has Asiatic 
affinities, a third connects them with Celebes, which belongs 
to the eastern area, while a fourth binds them with Formosa. 
Although the geographers and biologists are in some doubt 
as to their exact affinities, the ethnologist is in a more for- 
tunate position, as everything points to the absence of any 
Australian racial connection and links them up closely with 
South-eastern Asia. 

From the ethnological point of view it is most convenient 
to treat the islands in two groups, the Dutch Indies and the 
Philippine Islands; this division is, however, purely one of 
convenience, as I have already shown that part of the Dutch 
Indies belongs to the same ethnological area as the Philip- 
pines and part to a different zone. As, however, the 
Australian zone is outside our present purpose, this apparently 
cross division is not of practical importance. 

There has been considerable discussion as to the best 
geographical division of the Dutch Indies. For purposes of 
description I have adopted the following divisions. First, 
the Greater Sunda (Scenda) islands which include Sumatra, 
Java, Borneo, Celebes, and the smaller islands which are 
scattered around them; secondly, the Lesser Sunda islands, 
including the long stretch of islands from Bali to Timor; and 
thirdly, the Moluccas. New Guinea belongs in many respects 
to this group, but the ethnological problems connected with 
this great island belong rather to Oceania than to Asia, The 
group has been known by various names of which the most 
attractive is that adopted by the Dutch novelist Dekker, 
who has called them Insulinde. This term has found its way 
into much scientific literature, especially Dutch and German. 

There seems every reason to believe that the western 
islands have at various times formed part of the continent 





SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA 225 


of Asia and have been connected with one another. It has 
been stated that as late as the second century there was a 
connection between Sumatra and Malacca. The eastern 
islands, at a much remoter date, seem to have formed part 
of the Australian continent. Thus on the west, at the time 
when the modern populations were taking shape, the islands 
were exposed to continental influences ; on the east, however, 
the conditions were very different, and isolation seems to 
have played an important part in the form and distribution 
of the stocks which inhabit that area. 

Sumatra, which lies directly on the equator, although it 
has the comparatively small population of about 6,000,000, 
has an area of over 160,000 square miles. Paleozoic rocks 
have been found, but the greater part of the island is made 
up of tertiary deposits. The main physical features is the 
high Barisan range which runs along the south-west coast. 
This range includes numerous volcanoes, some of which are 
still active. North-east of this range there is a wide alluvial 
plain. On the west coast and in the north-east part of the 
islands the rivers, although numerous, do not afford any 
reasonable means of communication. Those of the plain 
are, however, of greater importance. The largest river-is. the 
Djambi, but the Moesi has long been, as it still is, a very 
important means of communication. The climate of Sumatra 
is very hot and the relative humidity is great. Owing, how- 
ever, to the mountainous character of the country numerous 
temperature enclaves occur above the 3000-foot contour level. 

Java is about a quarter the size of Sumatra, but has the 
very big population of approximately 40,000,000. The 
most prominent feature of the country is the great mountain 
ridge, a continuation of a great fold which runs from Burma 
to the Moluccas. Most of the mountains in the islands are 
volcanoes and some are still active. Although tertiary 
formations occur, the greater part of the island is made 
up of volcanic mud, and although about two-thirds of the 
whole area is mountainous the island is extraordinarily 
fertile, and even with the primitive methods which are used 
in most places produces enough rice to feed the very great 
population. The vegetation, where it is not controlled by 

1 Landenberger, however, admits that there may be earlier strata buried 
deep under more recent deposits (Geologie von Niederléndisch Indien, p. 110). 

Q 


226 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 

cultivation, is dense and impenetrable. The climate is 
extremely hot and moist, but here in Java as in Sumatra 
there are temperate enclaves on the highlands and the gardens 
are full of roses which never cease to bloom. 

Borneo, owing to its position on the equator, has very 
similar meteorological conditions to Sumatra. It has a 
rather different and more regular succession of geological 
strata than the other Dutch Indies and is more continental 
in general character. The coastal regions, except in the 
north and north-west parts, are for the most part low and 
swampy, but the greater part of this enormous island, the 
third largest in the world, apart from those ranking as 
continents, is covered with virgin equatorial forests. There 
are numerous rivers which rise from the central mountainous 
mass and flow in all directions into the sea. The population 
has been estimated at something near one and a half millions. 

Celebes is comparatively unexplored; it is remarkable 
for its curious configuration. Four long and mountainous 
peninsulas radiate from the central mass ; the neighbouring 
island of Halmaheira has a similar shape. The rivers are 
all short and unnavigable. The geology is still not very 
well known, but the island appears to be the remains of an 
isolated continental mass of great antiquity. The northern 
part has an equatorial climate, but the southern the definite 
wet and dry seasons which belong to its latitude, and it 
differs in these respects from many other parts of the archi- 
pelago. 

The Moluccas, more picturesquely named the Spice Islands, 
include three clusters of small islands, many of which are 
voleanic cones. They also have a typical equatorial climate, 
somewhat modified by their nearness to New Guinea. In 
flora and in fauna they show a close relationship to the 
Australian biological area. The Lesser Sunda Islands also 
belong to this biological area, and on the whole the islands 
are arid and contrast strongly with their western neighbours. 
The two last groups, then, belong to a different world from 
that which we have been studying, and may be considered 
to lie outside the sphere of Asiatic ethnology. They are 
peopled to a certain extent, however, by men who are 
related to those who inhabit that continent and must there- 
fore be noticed at least briefly. 





SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA 227 


The Philippine Islands are a compact archipelago con- 
sisting of a very large number of islands, most of which are 
separated from one another by narrow channels. Two-thirds 
of the whole area, which is a little less than that of Great 
Britain and Ireland combined, is made up by the islands of 
Luzon and Mindanao. Although these two islands contain 
large areas of lakes and swampy regions, most of the islands 
are extremely mountainous, and in most ‘places there is 
only a narrow belt of rich alluvial soil between the mountains 
and the sea. The majority of the people, however, live on 
this narrow coastal strip. 

The climate is characterized by considerable humidity, 
which combined with a hot climate has caused the growth 
of a luxuriant vegetation. The temperature is extremely 
equable, and although the precipitation is somewhat variable 
and very different in different parts of the archipelago, it is 
generally rather heavy. The climatic conditions are there- 
fore such that even when cultivated by most primitive 
methods they are capable of sustaining a very dense popula- 
tion, and much of the available land is not at present used for 
cultivation. 

The ethnology of this area falls naturally into three parts 
following the main geographic divisions: Indo-China, the 
Malay Peninsula, and the Islands. The ethnological sub- 
divisions also are closely correlated with the geographic sub- 
divisions. 

The inhabitants of the south-eastern part of the Asiatic 
continent have been variously classified. Joyce suggests 
three divisions: first, the scattered remnants of an early 
Negrito population ; secondly, an Indonesian group includ- 
ing the Mois of the hill country of Annam and the Naga. 
The third racial type he calls Southern Mongolian, and under 
this heading he includes the Thai, the Siamese, the Shan, 
the Tho of Northern Annam, and the Lao of Cambodgia, 
the Annamese, and the Burmese. He believes the Khmer 
to be probably a mixture of Malayans and other Indo- 
nesians. 

Deniker suggests a more elaborate form of classification. 
He admits two main groups: aborigines and the mixed 
populations of Indo-China. The first include numerous 
tribes. The Mois he describes as savage tribes dispersed 


228 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


over the table lands and mountains between the Mekong and 
the Annamese coast, from the frontier of Yunnan to Cochin 
China, all of whom are remarkable for their uniformity of 
physical type. The Kuis Deniker believes include two ethnic 
groups, one in the south-east of Siam and north-west of 
Cambodgia and the other in the Shan States. The former 
are aborigines like the Mois, the latter a branch of the Lolos. 
The Mons or Talaing are the remnants of a population which 
formerly occupied the whole of Lower Burma. The Tziam 
(or Chiam) inhabit the province of Bink Tuan and several 
other points of South Assam, Cochin China, and Cambodgia. 
The Karens inhabit the upper valley of the Me Ping and the 
mountainous districts of Arakan, Pegu and Tenasserim, the 
country between the Sittong and the Salween, and probably 
came into Burma at a later date than the Mois. Finally, 
two peoples he classifies as Indonesians, namely the Nagas 
and the Selungs. 

Among the mixed populations Deniker has four groups: 
the Cambodgians or Khmers, whom he considers to be a 
mixture of Malays or Kuis with an intermixture of Hindu, 
the Annamese, the Burmese and the Thai, whom he appar- 
ently considers to be Indonesian. Although he mentions 
certain physical characters, it would appear that his classifica- 
tion is based partly on the culture and partly on the language 
of the tribes. 

A most careful and succinct account of the peoples of 
Burma has been given by Sir Herbert White. He states that 
about two-thirds of the population of Burma are Burmese, 
who are the predominant element in the population every- 
where except in the Shan States, the Kachin, and the Chin 
Hills and Karenni. The second element in the population 
includes the Karens of the Karenni. The Shans also form 
an important element in the population, and among the 
remainder the most numerous are the Chins, the Kachins, the 
Talaings, and the Palaungs. There appear always to have 
been, at least for hundreds of years, a number of Chinese in 
Burma. At present they are increasing and mix freely with 
the Burmese. 

The history of these peoples is succinctly described by 
Haddon, who believes that until comparatively recently the 
inhabitants of Burma were of Nesiot stock, the present 


SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA 229 


Tibeto-Burman peoples coming from the head-waters of 
the Yangtze Kiang. “There is no_ proof,’ he says, 
“that the Burmans reached the Irrawaddy Valley before 
600 B.c.” 

Owing to the comparatively inaccessible character of the 
country we have in this area groups who differ considerably 
from one another, the various river valleys having formed 
the areas of characterization of each separate group. It 
seems also that we should separate Burma from the rest 
of the country and deal with the whole area as divided into 
two parts. 

There is ample evidence to suggest that at least in some 
parts of the area the aboriginal population was Negrito; 
these latter, as we shall see, still survive in the Malay Penin- 
sula. Speaking of Cambodgia, Verneau concludes that this 
stock forms the substratum of the population, although they 
have ceased to exist as a group for many years. 

The members of the second group which seems to be well 
represented in the area are akin to the people whom I have 
called Nesiots. They were the aborigines of much of the 
area, and where they are found to-day in a comparatively 
unmixed state are often living in remote and inaccessible 
regions in the mountains. There is in addition an element 
which is closely akin to the so-called Dravidian races of 
Southern India. Although these are apparently akin to 
the Nesiots, it seems likely that they represent a specialized 
strain and that they arrived later in the country. Finally, 
we have a large and important element; the individuals 
who constitute this have imposed their languages and 
culture on the people, and ultimately came from China. 
These last belong to the Parecean stock. 

It is suggested, then, that we have in this area the 
traces of at least four stocks, on the whole widely divided. 
We do not know the original home of the Negritos. Their 
present distribution certainly centres round a point in South- 
western Asia, but we cannot say whence or when they entered 
this area, nor do they survive. The Nesiot element has 
kindred still surviving in Yunnan, and it seems not improbable 
that they came into the country from the Tibeto-Yunnan 
plateau. The Negritos have left no trace in Burma, as far as 
has been reported at present, and it seems that, as far as we 


230 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


know now, the Nesiots may have been some of the earliest 
inhabitants of the area. 

There is every likelihood that there was a migratory 
movement eastwards from India into this region, and it is 
possible that it was this Dravidian-like people and not the 
Nesiots, to whom they are closely akin, who were responsible 
for the short long-headed part of the Burmese population. 
The element which Joyce describes as Southern Mongolian, 
corresponding to Haddon’s Tibeto-Burman-speaking people, 
came into the country from the north. There may, however, 
have been an earlier invasion of this type of man, as the 
population seems, in any case, to be very mixed. 

Tildesley (X. 9) divides up the Burmese population in the 
neighbourhood of Moulmein into three groups, one of them 
being a hybrid. One group she considers to be pure Burman. 
They are more closely allied to the Malayan, her Malayan 
group consisting of skulls most of which came from Java, 
only having the claim to be considered as one group on 
the basis that their owners probably all spoke languages akin 
to Malay, and less closely allied to the Chinese, by which is 
meant Southern Chinese. The second group, which she terms 
as probably Karen, is more closely allied to the Chinese than 
to the Malayan, and “as the Chinese are considerably closer 
to the Caucasian than the Malayan” (i.e. presumably, “‘as the 
relationship of the Chinese to the Caucasian is considerably 
closer than that of the Malayan to the Caucasian”) this 
section, although quite distinct from the Caucasian, is “closer 
to that type than the Burman.” From the context, I believe 
her meaning is ‘‘ closer to the Caucasian than the Burman,”’ 
but I am not quite sure. By Caucasian, I believe Tildesley 
means the type of which French and London skulls are 
more or less typical representatives, but she does not define 
her exact meaning and this is obscure. 

The matter has been more clearly discussed by Morant 
(I. 14), who has used Tildesley’s data but with a wider 
connotation. He suggests that Burmese “A,” to use. 
Tildesley’s nomenclature, is physically linked up with the 
Malayan type, and ultimately with the Southern Chinese. 
This is a type which we may certainly consider to be a 
developed type of Parecean man, and the linkage suggested 
by Morant, which he expressly says is a linkage of characters, 


SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA 231 


and this he does not want confused with a migration, to be 
exactly what would be expected if we admit with Haddon 
the existence of the Proto-Malays. It is possible, however, 
that there may be an even simpler explanation, although the 
data has not been fully worked out. The Southern Chinese, 
although living in a hot country, are not actually dwellers 
in the tropics, and it seems not impossible that we may find 
in the pure Burmese type the specialization of the Chinese 
type due to tropical conditions. 

The second type, which Tildesley affirms is more closely 
allied actually to the Chinese, appears to be differently 
treated by Morant. He does not include it in his general 
scheme of Oriental races. He says, however, that what he 
has termed Tibetan “‘ B,” although an aberrant type, and 
possibly a fundamental human type, is more closely allied 
to Burmese “ B ” and “ C ” than to any other Oriental type. 
It seems that we have, in Burma at any rate, a second race 
whose affinities lie with the north and the Yunnan plateau, 
and this type is allied either to the Southern Chinese or else 
to the other peoples of the Tibetan plateau. In any case, we 
are dealing with people who are mostly akin to Yellow man, 
but who probably have other blood in their veins. The 
brachycephaly of the Burmese, however, is a distinctive 
feature which cannot be accounted for solely by a suggestion 
of Yellow man, for as has been seen the majority of the 
Chinese appear to be mesocephalic. 

The Tibetan plateau and Yunnan, however, contain un- 
doubted traces of the Alpine race, which exists in some purity 
in the west in the Tarim basin, and it seems not impossible 
that where Tildesley found evidence of a “‘ Caucasian ” strain 
she might have suggested ‘“‘ Alpine” man. The Burmese 
crania are remarkable in several ways, not only are they 
shorter than the remainder of the Oriental skulls with which 
they have been compared, but they are also broader. The 
cephalic index, without giving any certain result, suggests 
a possible solution to the complex question.- The nasal index 
is as usual not a good indication of racial character ; the nose 
is platyrrhine in the first two groups of Burmese and consider- 
ably narrower in the other two groups. 

The peripheral region does not seem to have received the 
attention which it deserves among anthropologists. Verneau 


232 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


and Pannetier (X. 15), in their valuable study of the Cam- 
bodgians, have come to the conclusion that there are at least 
four types in the population. The first and oldest stratum is, 
they believe, Negrito. To-day this element has ceased to 
exist as an entity, and can only be found among certain 
members of the population. It is not improbable that there 
may be traces of a primitive population, but it is very 
hazardous, especially when the number of observations is 
small, to attempt to analyse the elements in any population. 
The existence of this type must therefore be considered as 
doubtful until we have further information. 

The second element is Nesiot. The remains of this race is 
found in the graves of the fishing tribes of the Tonle Sap 
(Bien Ho) and of its tributaries. These primitive tribes are 
still found in the mountains, where they have sought refuge 
from the invaders. They have, however, to a certain extent 
at least, mixed with the later comers, and their influence can 
be traced. 

The third element, called by the authors of the monograph 
referred to above as ‘‘l’element civilisateur,’’ came, it is 
suggested, either from India or from the islands. They 
believe that they possess ill-defined characters, the measure- 
ments on the heads showing them to be either sub-brachy- 
cephalic or mesocephalic. The fourth element in the popula- 
tion is described by the same authors as ‘‘ Mongolic and 
Mongoloid.” 

This is a more elaborate classification than that which 
had been propounded by Zaborovski (X. 17) earlier. He 
says, “* Les Cambodgians descendent des Tsiams qui eux- 
mémes proviennent des Dravidians mélés aux Mois et aux 
Indonesians.” It is clear that the latter was convinced 
that there was an element derived from India, whereas 
the later writers are more inclined to be doubtful on this 
subject. 

Morant has collected the references to the various skulls 
which have been obtained from this area. He criticizes 
Zaborovski’s statement that the Khmers had the same origin 
as the Mois, but more mixed with Mongolian peoples, and 
comes to the conclusion that the Khmers are almost identical 
with skulls which are acknowledged to be Annamese. He 
concludes, ‘“‘ We can have little hesitation in stating that the 


SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA 233 


Khmers are not at all closely related to the aborigines of 
Annam,”’ i.e. to the Mois. 

After testing his stories by the coefficient of racial likeness, 
he concludes that the Annamese conform to precisely the 
same cranial type as the Southern Chinese (see page 165), 
but admits that this deduction is at present based on in- 
sufficient evidence. The Annamese occupy a position racially 
between the Southern Chinese and the Malays. The Siamese 
bridge the gap between the Malays and the Annamese, being 
more closely related to the former than to the Chinese. 

These statements may seem to be at variance, but it is 
possible, I think, to combine them and so to form at least 
a working hypothesis of the population of this somewhat 
obscure area. 

It seems almost certain that we have, apart from 
problematical Negritos, an underlying Nesiot strain, repre- 
sented especially by the wilder tribes, who, owing to the 
isolated position of their present homes, have retained their 
racial purity not greatly impaired. These are the so-called 
“ aborigines.” It is not improbable that they have affected 
the more civilized population, but we have not at present 
sufficient evidence to be sure of this point. The Nesiots 
have been in the country from a remote period, and if 
the evidence put forward by Verneau is correct, and there is 
no reason to doubt the archzeological evidence, they occupied, 
even in times not so very long past, an area greater than they 
do at present. 

In discussing the population of Burma, I have drawn 
attention to the hypothesis put forward by Tildesley that 
there are two types, the one more closely related to the Malay, 
and possibly representing the descendants on the mainland 
of the Proto-Malay type, and the other related to the Southern 
Chinese type. It seems not improbable that we have, at least 
in Cambodgia, the same two types which she reports from 
Burma, the one of the Malay type, and those, if not coming 
from the islands, as Verneau suggests, at least related to the 
inhabitants of that area; the other related to the Southern 
Chinese, Verneau’s “‘ Mongoloid ” group. 

We have in the Malay Peninsula a comparatively accurate 
census (X. 25). It reveals several remarkable facts. The 
total population is over three millions; of these the abori- 


234 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


gines, who are the most interesting for our present purpose, 
number just over thirty thousand, though it is possible that 
some of them have been included under Malays. The recent 
increase has been small; some tribes are dying out, others 
are rapidly merging themselves in the more settled Malays 
and losing their jungle habits. 

Apart from the increase in Eurasians, who numbered over 
twelve thousand in 1921, the increase in the other component 
parts of the population is caused largely by the very 
great immigration which is taking place, for although the 
deaths outnumber the births the population continues to 
increase. The Malays, who number just under half the total 
population, are recruited from Java and Sumatra and else- 
where, largely for the rubber industry, but they do show signs 
of increasing quite apart from immigration. The Chinese 
form the second largest element in population. They are the 
trading class, and in the Federated Malay States are almost 
as numerous as the Malays; altogether in our area they 
number over a million. The Indians, who number just under 
half a million, are recruited very largely for labour purposes, 
and come mainly from the south of India. For the most part 
they are coolies, but they include a number of small shop- 
keepers. There are also about thirty thousand other Asiatics, 
Siamese, Japanese, Singhalese, Arabs and Jews. 

The Chinese form a very interesting element in the popula- 
tion. They certainly visited the country five hundred years 
ago, and there are Chinese records of Malacca as early as the 
beginning of the fifteenth century. The earliest Chinese 
seem to have come from Amoy, and the majority of the im- 
migrants have always been either Cantonese or Fukienese. 
The earlier immigrants seem to have married with the Malays, 
but for the most part Islam has proved a bar to intermarriage, 
and they have always, wherever possible, returned to China. 
Recently, however, the Chinese female immigrant has in- 
creased and many of the Chinese have made their homes 
outside China, especially since they are secure and have peace, 
which they much desire as merchants, but which is hard to 
find in the present disturbed state of China. The Chinese for 
the most part belong to the type which I have described as 
Southern Chinese. As far as I am aware no details have been 
published on the physical characters of this interesting and 


SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA 235 


very important element, not only in the peninsula but also in 
the islands. 

_ The influence that India has had on Malaya is greater, per- 
haps, even than that of China: the influence has been both 
political, religious (for the first missionaries of Mohammedan- 
ism came from India), and literary. In Malacca there was a 
Tamil quarter. The most numerous among the Northern 
Indian races are the Punjabis, but there are as many as 
five thousand Bengalis. 

The Arabs, though they only number five thousand, are, at 
least in Singapore, true Arabs, for there has been since the 
beginning of Islam constant communication between Malaya 
and the Arab communities, first in India and later in the 
Hadramut. Religion has in this case, of course, been no bar, 
and all the old Sayyid families have intermarried with Malay 
women. Winstedt, however, states that “the Arab east of 
countenance is often remarkably preserved,” an observation 
exactly parallel to my own on the Arab Moslems in Peking 
(see page 159). 

Japanese merchants have increased owing to the War, but 
on the whole their presence is recent and they can hardly be 
said to have affected the population. It is unfortunate that 
anthropologists have for the most part interested themselves 
solely in the Malays and in the aborigines, and there seem to 
be no physical data on these very interesting and numerous 
immigrants, who have undoubtedly played a great part in 
making the population what it is and who to-day collectively 
represent the majority of the population. 

Apart from these immigrant aliens there are three different 
stocks represented in the Malay Peninsula, Negrito, Sakai, 
and Malayan, which last includes both Proto-Malays and 
their advanced kinsfolk. 

The Negritos, who in Kedah and Upper Perak are known 
by their tribal name of Semang, and in Kelantan as Pangan, 
are reduced to about two thousand individuals. They are 
small in stature, probably rather over 150 ems., as the 
measurements reported by different authors vary consider- 
ably. ‘They have heads which tend to roundness and frizzy 
hair. The proportions of the body are of interest, as there is 
a certain lengthening of the upper arm and a shortening of 
the leg as compared with Europeans, The nasal index is not 


236 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


apparently so great as in the majority of Negritos. These 
people present special problems which may be more con- 
veniently discussed in dealing with the ethnology of the 
Philippine Islands (page 241), where similar groups are 
found. 

The Sakai, who inhabit the mountains from Kula Kangsar 
to Selangor, represent the second element among the abo- 
riginal tribes of the peninsula. They have mixed considerably 
with the Negritos in the north and the Proto-Malays in the 
south. The Senoi and Besisi form part of the same group, 
but the term Sakai is conveniently used to cover all these 
peoples. They differ from the Negritos in the colour of their 
skins ; indeed, they are the lightest of the three groups in the 
peninsula, in their greater stature and in their hair, which is 
straight or wavy. It has been said that they should be con- 
nected linguistically with the Mon-Khmer peoples, and 
physically with the Veddas. At first sight these two state- 
ments seem irreconcilable. Taken in conjunction, however, 
with comparative evidence the two different statements are 
of the greatest value in fixing the ethnological position of 
these peoples. I have already shown that many of the 
sporadic occurrences of Mon-Khmer languages are to be 
associated with the Pre-Dravidian type of man. 

Intermediate between these peoples and the Proto-Malays, 
but more closely allied to the latter, are the Besisi. They have 
Proto-Malay chiefs and physically seem to be closely allied 
to this stock. 

The Proto-Malays and their more civilized cousins form 
rather less than half the population of the peninsula. There 
appears to be considerable variation between different local- 
ities, probably owing to the intermixing of closely allied 
stocks. Itis possible, however, to distinguish certain common 
characters which separate them from the peoples just dis- 
cussed. The hair is always straight and black and tends to 
be round in section. It is always scanty on the face and body. 
There are considerable differences in skin-colour, which varies 
from a dark olive to a light olive, sometimes with a reddish 
tinge. The eyes are always dark and sometimes are obliquely 
set. The nose is flat and broad and the cheek-bones are 
prominent. The chin is square and usually slightly prog- 
nathous. The head tends to brachycephaly. 


SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA 237 


These characters show that the Proto-Malay type is closely 
connected with the Parecean, from which indeed it is some- 
times difficult to distinguish it. There are, however, quite 
sufficient differences to justify the division of the type as a 
sub-variety. It is hardly possible to distinguish the Proto- 
Malayan type as found in the peninsula from that which is 
found in the archipelago. 

The exact ethnology of these regions, with the exception 
of the Philippine Islands, has not been sufficiently studied, 
and considerable doubt yet remains as to exact significance 
of the various facts which have been reported. Generally 
speaking, three types are found in the islands, Nesiot, a 
specialized branch of the Parecean, and Negrito; but their 
distribution does not extend equally over the whole area and 
other stocks have been reported. No Negritos appear to have 
been reported from Sumatra. The Batin are said to contain 
traces of a strain akin to the Pre-Dravidians. The Orang 
Kubu of South Sumatra are believed by Haddon (I. 19. 119) 
to belong to a very primitive strain; possibly they represent 
an early type of Parecean man, as their characteristics on the 
whole agree with those usually associated with these stocks. 
Among many of the other stocks of Sumatra the occurrence of 
curly hair suggests that possibly at one time the Pre-Dravidian 
element was more widely distrbuted than at present, and 
that although, except in a few cases, the Pre-Dravidians 
have ceased to exist as groups yet their blood still runs in the 
veins of many of the present inhabitants of the island. 

The Nesiot strain, which is widely distributed over the 
island, cannot for the most part be associated with definite 
tribes but is found, to a greater or lesser extent, among most 
of the people. The Parecean element, on the other hand, is 
found both in a pure and in a mixed state. Among the 
Battaks, for instance, Volz has noted that two types occur. 
The Mentawei islanders, on the other hand, seem to be a pure 
race with but little Nesiot admixture. The nomenclature of 
the Parecean strain needs consideration. It has been usual 
to call them “ Malays.” The true Malays arose as a people 
at Menankerbau in Sumatra and crossed over into the Malay 
Peninsula in the twelfth century. By the end of the thir- 
teenth century they were widely distributed over the archi- 
pelago. Like the Mongols they have given their name not 


238 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


only to the wider extension of their own tribe, but also to the 
peoples speaking cognate languages. The term cannot be 
used to connote a physical type without a certain amount of 
confusion, as the languages and physical types are by no 
means correlated. It is, however, in general use for the 
round-headed peoples inhabiting this region, usually in the 
form Malayan. Haddon has invented the convenient term 
‘““ Proto-Malays,” to mean the branch of Parecean man from 
whom the various specialized modern ‘“‘ Malay ” peoples are 
sprung. 

The immense population of Java offers a particularly in- 
teresting field to the ethnologist, and although the culture 
has been very carefully investigated, but little attention 
seems to have been devoted to the people. It has been 
stated that the Kalangs in Java proper, that is the centre of 
the island, are true Negritos. It seems very doubtful whether 
any pure Negrito people survive in the island, and further 
evidence is needed to confirm this statement. Apart from 
these at least four groups of peoples are found in the island. 
True Malays are found at Batavia and in the other ports, 
the west of the island is occupied by Sundanese, the centre 
by Javanese, and the east and Madura by the Madurese. 
Although there are marked differences in culture and in 
language between these peoples there does not seem to be 
any real difference of physique. I have been informed that 
there is a noticeable difference of temperament between the 
Javanese and the Sundanese, but such measurements as are 
available suggest that there is little if any difference of 
physique underlying these variations. Among some of the 
tribes living in the remoter parts of the island, for instance 
the Tenggerese, definite Nesiot traits have been observed, 
but the people who occupy the greater part of the island are 
probably all descended from the Proto-Malays. They are 
extremely round-headed, but this does not serve to distin- 
guish them from the other peoples of this group who live 
in South-east Asia, and Morant has recently drawn attention 
to their relationship with both the Burmese and the Assamese. 
It should, however, be noted that such figures as we have 
suggest that the Javanese are a mixed race,! and that obser- 


1 Even so small a group as 37 Sundanese had a standard deviation for the 
cephalic index of 3:5 [calculated from figures in Garrett (X. 43)]. 


SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA 239 


vations are needed from various parts of the island before 
any exact opinion can be expressed as to their relationships 
in detail. 

The historical accounts of migrations, although they are 
of considerable value in suggesting the probable composition 
of the people, cannot be confirmed by actual reference to 
physique. These accounts not only show that the Malays 
had been spreading over the island from early times, but 
also that at the beginning of the Christian era there was 
Indian influence, and for a long period this influence appears 
to have been culturally at least predominant. It has left 
behind it such magnificent monuments as Borobudur and 
inscriptions like those at Batutulis, but it is difficult either 
from measurements or from observations on the people to 
trace to-day the extent of this influence on the physique 
of the people. 

With the Chinese it is quite otherwise. The Chinese 
certainly visited Java in early times. They have probably 
kept up commercial relations with the island for nearly 1300 
years. The petty trade of the island is for the most part in 
their hands. To-day numerous half-breeds are to be found, 
showing how easily the population absorbs this element. 
Most of these Chinese who come to the island to-day are 
natives of the southern seaboard. The distinction in physical 
types which can be seen side by side in Java serves to empha- 
size into what widely different groups Parecean man has 
separated. 

In addition to these foreign elements which have probably 
had an important effect on the physique of the people, the 
Arabs who have influenced their culture and religion have 
also left considerable traces in the island. Their numbers 
are probably insignificant in relation to the total population, 
but in some towns, especially Djokjakarta, the physical 
type certainly survives in comparative purity. 

If we sum up the racial elements in Java they may be 
divided into two classes: first, the types which have become 
thoroughly naturalized in the island; these include possibly 
Negritos and certainly Nesiots and the descendants of Proto- 
Malay immigrants. The second class include comparatively 
recent immigrants to the islands. They are, first, Malays 
who are akin to the Proto-Malay element in the island and 


240 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


therefore hardly to be distinguished from them. Next, there 
have been immigrants from India, but these, except for 
very recent traders who have immigrated within recent 
years, do not seem to have left any distinguishing mark on 
the population. Thirdly, the Chinese element in the popula- 
tion is old-established, and although recent hybrids can 
easily be distinguished, the ultimate effect of Chinese immi- 
gration cannot as yet be stated. The Arab invaders belong 
individually to a marked type and where they have inter- 
married have preserved their original type, but they cannot 
be considered as more than a very negligible element in the 
total population. 

The peoples of Borneo have been carefully studied by 
Hose and McDougall (X. 47), and by Haddon (X. 46). They 
are therefore better known than some parts of Indonesia. 
Here, again, we have no evidence about the aboriginal in- 
habitants. No trace has been discovered of Negritos, a fact 
which is all the more remarkable because of the close geo- 
graphic connection of Borneo with the Philippine Islands. 
Any Melanesian element seems to be equally absent from 
Borneo. When geographic factors are taken into considera- 
tion this was less to be expected. 

The racial history of the island which is suggested by 
Hose and McDougall accounts in the most satisfactory way 
that has yet been suggested for the origin of the present 
peoples. They believe that there are four principal sources 
for the population. The Klemantans, Kenyans and Punans, 
these authors suggest, probably inhabited Borneo when it 
was connected with the mainland. There was a second wave 
of migration including the present Kayans, Muruts, and 
Ibans. The Karens are probably the most closely allied to 
these peoples, who probably represent “‘ an Indonesian stock 
which had remained and received fresh influx of Mongol 
blood.” 

It seems doubtful whether the physique of the people can 
be quite so simply explained. While it seems probable that 
the earlier inhabitants were Nesiots, there has been so much 
mixing at various times that it is extremely doubtful whether 
the introduction of Proto-Malay influence can be definitely 
assigned to any particular migration or tribe. Nor can it 
be definitely stated whether the mixing took place on 


SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA 241 


the mainland or in the islands. It would seem, however, 
abundantly clear that in the remoter districts the Nesiot 
blood had maintained itself in comparative purity, for ex- 
ample among the Land Dayak, Murut, and Malay, but that 
elsewhere-and especially on the coast the Proto-Malay and 
Malay elements had become dominant. This is similar to 
what has happened in Java. There, however, owing no 
doubt to the more accessible nature of the country, the Nesiot 
element has become submerged to a greater extent. 

The ethnology of the Philippine Islands possesses many 
parallels with the rest of Indonesia, except that in this case 
there are actually surviving Negritos. Modern influences 
other than European are similar; there are, however, 
certain differences in detail to which attention should be 
called. The Arab influence seems to have been more 
cultural than physical, and probably has had no effect on 
the racial type of the people. Indian culture has had a wide 
effect on the islands. Here again, however, it would seem 
as if the physical effect might be entirely discountenanced. 
In any case it was by no means so widespread as in Java. 
No monuments have been found which are comparable to 
those of Java, nor has there been any deep-rooted survival 
of Indian customs as in Bali. The effect of culture contact 
with India is undoubtedly very great and has penetrated 
even to the remoter parts of the archipelago, but there is 
no evidence which suggests that any trace of the Indian 
physical type survives. Chinese traders have visited the 
Philippines for many centuries. It is more than probable 
that there may be traces of their blood there. The matter 
is, however, very difficult to study, because owing to the 
kinship of the Chinese and the Proto-Malays the exact effects 
of hybridization are not easy to estimate. 

There remain, then, the three basal stocks who form the 
greater part of the population of the islands. It seems 
definitely established that at one time the N egritos held the 
greater part if not all the islands. They were even more 
widely diffused when Europeans first visited the country 
than they are at present. Now, however, they form only 
a small fraction of the population. They live in scattered 
groups in the forested mountainous regions, four such groups 
being found in Luzon, and one each in Palasan and Mindanao.. 


R 


242 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


In addition to these definitely established Negrito groups 
there are others, usually called Montesos or “ Hill-men,”’ 
who appear to have some kinship with the Negritos. They 
are all pygmies, with an average stature of 150 cms. or less, 
although this figure seems to be exceeded by some of the 
Hill tribes. They all have round heads and very broad 
noses. The most remarkable traits are, however, the black- 
ness and woolliness of the hair and the blackness of the skin. 
There can be no doubt that the Negritos of the Philippines 
are closely related both to the pygmies of the Andamans 
and also to certain of the pygmy groups in New Guinea. 
The general problem connected with these peoples I have 
already discussed in dealing with the racial problem in Asia 
(page 65). 

It is usual to group the Brown races of the Philippines 
into two classes, Malayan and Indonesian. This division 
is probably not entirely satisfactory. According to the 
ordinary grouping it will be found that all the people loosely 
grouped together as Nesiot agree in having a very low 
stature, normally between 151 and 156 cms. mean value. 
There is, however, a greater variety of nasal index than 
might be expected. In discussing the ethnology of Southern 
India a not dissimilar series of facts were noted. Possibly 
the explanation may be similar. I have already called 
attention to Haddon’s suggestion that there are traces of 
Pre-Dravidian elements in Sumatra and elsewhere in this 
area. He has also shown (I. 19, 20) that the main differences 
between the Pre-Dravidian peoples of Eastern Sumatra and 
the Toala of Celebes and the true Pre-Dravidians is the 
ereater stature and the more rounded nature of the head. 
Among such peoples as the Bontok of Luzon and the Ifugao 
of the same island the mean stature is 155 cms., the cephalic 
index is 78 and 77 respectively and the mean nasal index 
100 and 102. The first two measurements would not serve 
to distinguish them from the other Nesiot tribes. The nasal 
index, however, seems to be a clearer guide. It is likely 
that these tribes have other blood in their veins, but it seems 
more than possible that they may be considered as true 
representatives of what is probably one of the most ancient 
stocks in Southern Asia who have left any living repre- 
sentatives. As we have already seen, there are in Haddon’s 


SOUTH-EASTERN ASIA 243 


opinion traces of these peoples surviving in Sumatra and 
elsewhere. They are of particular interest, because some 
anthropologists believe that they are connected with the 
same stock as the Australians and therefore probably oc- 
cupied all this area at a very remote period. 

The true Nesiots of the Philippines are all distinguished 
by their short stature and relatively long heads, although 
they are seldom unmixed with other elements, especially 
Proto-Malay. The nasal indices vary in their mean values 
from 89 to 93 or 95. They appear to be less platyrrhine 
therefore than the Pre-Dravidians. The cephalic indices are 
usually in the neighbourhood of 80, that is they are broader- 
headed than the Pre-Dravidians and usually slightly more 
long-headed than the Proto-Malays, but only slightly and 
hardly significantly so, owing no doubt to the mixture of 
the two stocks. 

Finally, the tribes which are usually classed as Proto- 
Malays are taller than either the Nesiots or the Negritos. 
Although in some cases a mean cephalic index as low as 80 
is recorded, the majority of these tribes have a mean value 
as high as 84 or 85, but there appears to be considerable 
variation. The nasal index, however, serves to distinguish 
them clearly from their neighbours, the extreme limits of the 
mean values being between 73 and 85. . 

It must be remembered that in all these cases we are 
referring to tribes that probably contain at least two and 
possibly three elements in their composition. The mean 
value of any measurements or indices is to a certain extent 
misleading, as we are often averaging two very different 
elements. All that can really be said is that the tribes which 
are classed as Nesiots or Proto-Malays have the character- 
istics of that stock as a dominant feature, and that probably 
in most of such tribes we should find individuals of widely 
different characteristics. These individual differences are, 
of course, obscured by pooling the measurements on the 
basis of social groups. 

Summarizing them the racial stocks in Indonesia may 
be grouped into at least four classes. There are, first, the 
Negritos who have to-day a limited distribution and in this 
area are only found in the Philippines. The second group, 
and one that is probably widely scattered but is only found 


244 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


sporadically, consists of the Pre-Dravidians. The third group 
is related to the races found along the south-western seaboard 
of Asia, the Nesiots. Finally, the dominant element in the 
population is the Proto-Malay akin to the Parecean stock. 
The history and migrations of all these peoples are at present 
uncertain. There remain other elements, some of which, 
especially the Chinese, form an important percentage of the 
total population in many parts. They seem, however, to 
be recent immigrants for the most part, and in discussing 
the ethnology of the islands must be grouped as aliens. 


CHAPTER XI 
SUMMARY AND ConcLUsIONsS 


I HAVE attempted to sketch in the preceding chapters 

the physical characters of the chief peoples of Asia. 
Such a sketch must necessarily be brief if it is to present the 
facts in broad outline and to avoid the pitfall of super- 
abundant detail. It must also be somewhat in the nature 
of a stocktaking, showing where we have abundant informa- 
tion and where at present there is a dearth of scientific 
observations. It will have been seen that, though from the 
anatomical study of the various peoples there is abundant 
reason to believe that environment has played an important 
part in fashioning man’s form, yet when the inhabitants of 
the various areas are described the local groups seem to 
show relationships which can more readily be correlated 
with their history and their migrations than with their 
present environment. We have found marked differences 
of form among tribes who live under what appears to be 
exactly similar conditions. On the other hand, if the distribu- 
tion of a type is plotted on a map, it often seems to retain its 
constancy in spite of immense divergencies of environment. 
Yet certain features, as I have tried to show, do seem, as 
far as can be judged, to be correlated with environment. 
The material for such study is accumulating, and it becomes 
almost daily easier to compile the tables on which such a 
research must be based. 

It is clear that such alterations in response to environment, 
if they do occur, must be in the majority of cases slow in 
their action. We know little at present of the early racial 
history of Asia. The more modern history and much of such 
fragments as we possess of the earlier history make it plain 
that there have been vast racial movements, the going 
forward and backward of peoples. Sometimes these move- 
ments have, like the invasions of the Huns, been cataclysmic. 

245 


24.6 THE PEOPLES OF ASIA 


Others have been very slow. Not only have there been such 
migrations, but they have been accompanied by considerable 
mixings of different stocks. The human races seem for the 
most part to be capable of producing fertile hybrids, and there 
is every reason to believe that such hybridization has been 
taking place in Asia since remote times. There are then 
many difficulties with which the ethnologist is faced. Among 
the greatest are the possible effect of environment, the 
result of migration and the outcome of hybridization. It 
is difficult to disentangle the effects of these three happenings. 

Recent European colonization has not made the matter 
easier. European hybrids are, however, probably less 
numerous in proportion to the native races than for instance 
in Central America. In certain parts, however, they have 
not been without their effects. 

One of the most interesting features of the whole of the 
racial problems of Asia is concerned with national and 
psychological factors, but they can hardly be disregarded 
in considering the physique, because these factors are often 
considered to be closely correlated with physique. While 
there has in recent years been considerable immigration or 
temporary immigrations into Asia by members of European 
races, there has also been a corresponding immigration of 
Asiatics out of their own continent. Various efforts have 
been made to stop such counter migrations. The reason 
has usually been ultimately economic. The economic factors 
have, however, a biological background. The peoples of 
Eastern Asia have been compelled to exist for many genera- 
tions under conditions which are much harder than those in 
Europe have been for a long time. The Asiatic can there- 
fore exist under economic conditions which are impossible, 
or extremely distasteful, to the average European. It has 
been felt by many nations that the economic competition 
with Asiatics is unfair to their own nationals and therefore 
they have, on various grounds, been excluded from certain 
countries. This policy of exclusion, though often it is called 
racial, is usually carried out on national and not true racial 
grounds. It has been seen in the course of the argument 
that physically there is comparatively little difference be- 
tween some of the races of Europe and those of Asia, whereas 
in other races the difference is more profound, On the other 


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 247 


hand, I have tried to show that nationality, culture, religion, 
and language, either together or severally, are often entirely 
independent of actual physical problems. 

Such questions therefore as I have suggested above are 
quite apart from the study to which ethnology is devoted, 
though they may frequently borrow data from the ethno- 
logist. Biologically the majority of the races of Asia from 
the extreme west to the east are closely connected with those 
of Europe. The distinctions between them are probably 
not greater than might be said to warrant the term local 
varieties, although in some cases the differentiation seems 
to be sufficient to make the use of the word “ sub-race ”’ 
admissible. In Eastern Asia, however, there seems to be 
very widely spread a group of peoples, conveniently termed 
Yellow man, who seem to be more remotely connected with the 
races of Europe. Even here the degree of divergence is to a 
certain extent a matter of dispute. Finally, in remote parts 
of South-eastern Asia there are sporadic traces of an entirely 
different type of man who, all ethnologists are agreed, must 
be considered as widely differentiated from the other two 
groups. 

In numbers the Negritos are so few as to form an infini- 
tesimal part of the peoples of Asia. Yellow man is very 
numerous, and probably the greater part of the population 
of Asia belongs to this race, but the other races are very 
plentiful and may have slight majority. The smaller varieties 
of the great stocks are also present in large numbers, although 
they seem to be divided into certain marked categories. As 
far as can be judged with evidence that has been collected at 
present these varieties seem to be dominant in certain well- 
marked regions, so that in spite of divergencies in detail it 
is often possible to state in broad outline the physical type 
which inhabits a certain area. But this can hardly ever be 
done with the same accuracy as can be attained in plotting 
the distribution of a language or of a religion. It can never 
be done with the precise exactitude with which modern 
nations endeavour to define their political frontiers. 




















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SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Spee bibliography is obviously not exhaustive, but refer- 
ences to further literature will be found in the works 
cited. A convenient guide to the libraries in which the 
various publications may be found has been compiled by 
R. T. Leiper, Periodicals of Medicine and the Allied Sciences 
(including anthropology) in British Libraries, British Medical 
Association, London, 1923. Unfortunately this does not 
include references to the Library of the Royal Anthropological 
Institute. A more complete list will be found in the World 
List of Scientific Periodicals, London ( forthcoming). 
Apart from the usual abbreviations, e.g. Trans. for 
transactions, etc., the following have been used :— 


A.f.A. Archiv fiir Anthropologie, Braunschweig. 


J.R.AI. Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., Lond. (no Royal 
previous to 1907, XXXVII.). 


Z.f.E. Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, Berlin. 


In some cases it has been found most convenient to repeat 
a reference; in other cases, where there was no ambiguity, 
cross references have been given. Students who are hampered 
by lack of linguistic knowledge or inadequate libraries will 
frequently find useful résumés of papers in the Archiv fiir 
Anthropologie (the older numbers of which are especially 
valuable for Russian literature), in l Anthropologie, and in 
the American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 


249 


25 


—_ 


a 
Ke Ooo wmornt on > 


_ — 
w bo 


— 
ao oF 


18 


0 BIBLIOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER I 


Keane, A. H. Ethnology. Camb., 1896. 

Linneus, C. Systema nature. Ed. prineeps, Lugd. Batav., 1735. [Re- 
print, Paris, 1830.] 

sre het C. Ed. decima reformata Holmiz, 1758. [Reprint, Leipsic, 

894.] 

Blumenbach, J. F. De generis hwmani varietate nativa. Gott., 1775. 

Blumenbach, J. F. Second Ed. Gott., 1781. 

Duckworth, W. L. H. Anthropology and Morphology. Camb., 1904. 

Huxley, T. H. Journ. Ethnolog. Soc. Lond., 1870, N.S., IT. 404. 

Topinard, Paul. Elements d’ Anthropologie générale. Paris, 1885. 

Sergi, G. Specie e varieta Umane. Turin, 1900. 

Ripley, W. Z. Races of Hurope. Lond., 1899. 

Deniker, J. The Races of Man. Lond., 1900. 

Pearson, K. The Grammar of Science. Lond., 1911. 

Pearson, K. (Editor). Tables for Biometricians. Camb., 1923. 


Yule, G. Udney. An Introduction to the Study of Statistics. Lond., 
1911. 


Buxton, L. H. D. The Anthropology of Cyprus. J.R.A.I., 1920, 
L. 194. 


Morant, G. M. In Biometrika. Camb., 1924, XVII. 1. 

Thomson, A. [Man’s Cranial Form.] J.A.I., 1903, XXXIIT. 135. 

Keith, A. Human Embryology and Morphology. Third Ed. Lond., 1913. 
Keith, A. Huxley Lecture, Nature, 1923, CXII. 257. 


Thomson, A., and Buxton, L. H. D. Man’s Nasal Index in relation to 
certain climatic conditions. J.R.A.I., 1923, LIII. 92. 


Haddon, A.C. The Races of Man. Camb., 1924. 


Quetelet, A. Lettres . . . sur la théorie des probabilités. Brussels, 1846. 
[Eng]. Trans., O. G. Downes, Lond., 1849.] 


Retzius, A. Ethnologische Schriften. Stockholm, 1864. 
Giuffrida-Ruggeri, V. Homo sapiens. Bologna, 1913. 
Giuffrida-Ruggeri, V. U lI’ origine dell’ Uomo. Bologna, 1921. 


Biasutti, R. Studi sulla distribuzione dei caratteri e dei typi antropologici. 
Mem. Geogr., Firenze, 1912, VI. 


Dixon, R. B. The Racial History of Man. New York, 1923. 
Keane, A. H. Man Past and Present. Camb., 1920. 


Martin, R. Lehrbuch der Anthropologie. [Extensive bibliography.] Jena, 
1914. 


Flower, Sir. W. H. Cat. Roy. Coll. Surgeons. Lond., 1879, I. (Man). 

Quatrefages, J.de. The Human Species. Lond., 1879. 

Quatrefages, J. de, and Hamy, E. T. Crania ethnica. Paris. 

Turner, Sir W. Sci. Results of ‘‘ Challenger’? Exped. 1884, XXIV. 10. 

Brooks, C. E. P. The Evolution of Climate. Lond., 1922. 

Lyde, L. W. Climatic Control of Skin Colour (Papers on Interracial 
Problems, ed. G. Spiller, 1911, 104). 

fee A. [Effect of Indoor Life on Pigmentation.] J.R.A.I., 1921, 

Huntingdon, E., and Visher, S. 8. Climatic Changes, their Nature and 
Causes, 1923, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 251 


36 Mathew, R. Climate and Evolution. Ann. New York Acad. Sci., 1915, 


XXIV. 


37 Conklin, E.G. The Direction of Human Evolution. Oxford, 1921. 
38 Pearl, R. Modes of Research in Genetics. New York, 1915. 

39 Carr-Saunders, A. M. The Population Problem. Oxford, 1922. 

40 Keith, A. The Antiquity of Man. New Ed. Lond., 1925. 


CHAPTER II 


(a) Human GroGRAPHY 


It is impossible to give a representative bibliography of the works on the 


human geography of Asia as they are so numerous. The following contain 
references to the more specialized books. 


1 


bo 


22 


Keane, A. H. Stanford’s Compendium of Geography and Travel. Asia 
(2 vols.). Lond., 1896. 


Brit. Mus. Handbook to the Ethnographical Collections. [T. A. Joyce.] 
Lond., 1910. 


Hogarth, D. G. The Nearer Hast. Oxford, 1902. 
Little, A. The Farther Hast. Oxford, 1902. 


Czaplicka, M.A. Aboriginal Siberia. Oxford, 1914. [Summarizes Russian 
literature. ] 


Buxton, L.H.D. The Hastern Road. Lond., 1924. 


Richards, L. (S. J.) Geographie de ’ Empire de Chine. Shanghai, 1905. 
[Eng. Trans., Kennelly, 1908.] 


Broomhall, T. H. (Editor). The Chinese Empire. Lond., 1907. 
Richthofen, Freiherr v. China. Five vols., Berlin, 1877-1911. 
Holdich, Sir T., India. Oxford, 1902. 

Czaplicka, M. A. The Turks of Central Asia. Oxford, 1918. 


(6) Astatic RAcEs 


Haddon, A.C. The Wanderings of Peoples. Camb., 1911. 

Hrdlicka, A. Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop. Washington, 1920, ITT. 4. 

Zwaan, K. de. Die Inseln Nias. Haag, 1914 (2 vols.). 

Giuffrida-Ruggeri, V. Prime linee di un’ antropologia sistemica dell’ Asia. 
Archiv. Antrop. Etnol. Florence, 1917, XLVII., also issued separately, 
Engl. Trans., Univ. of Calcutta, Anthrop. Papers, 1921, VI. 

Fleure, H. J. In Eugenics Review. 1922, XIV. 97. 

Smith, G. Elliot. The Ancient Hgyptians. London and New York, 
1923. 

Baur-Fischer-Lenz. Grundriss der menschlichen Erblichkeitslehre and 
Rassenhygiene. 1923. 

Ginther, H. F. K. Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes. Munich, 1924. 

Duckworth, W. L. H. [Note on a skull from Syria.] Studies in Anthro- 
pology. Camb., 1911. 

Haddon, A.C. [The Pygmy question] in Wollaston, A. F. R. Pygmies and 
Papuans. Lond., 

Martin, R. Die Finks der Malayischen Halbinsel. Jena, 
1905. 


23 Sullivan, L. R., in Mem, Bishop Mus. Honolulu, 1923, IX. 211. 


252 BIBLIOGRAPHY 


om 0 be 


CHAPTER III 


Boule, M. Les hommes fossiles. Paris, 1921. 

Pumpelly, R. Explorations in Turkestan. Carnegie Inst., Washington, 
1904, LX XIII. (2 vols.). 

Savenkov. Congres internat. d’anthrop. et d’archeol. Moscow, 1892, I. 

Baye, J. de, and Volkov, Th. lAnthrop. Paris, 1899, X. 172. 

Hamada, K., and Hasebe, K. Rep. Archzol. Research, Dept. of Lit., 
Kyoto Imp. Univ., 1920-1921, IV-V. 


Teilhard, P. l’Anthrop. 1923, XX XIII. 630. 

Andersson, J. G. Palwontologica Sinica D. Peking, 1923, I. 1. 
Andersson, J. G. Bull. Geol. Surv. China. Peking, 1923, V. 1. 
Buxton, L. H. Dudley. Man, 1925, XXV. 10. 

Zumoffen, G. L’Anthrop. 1897, VIII. 272. 

Matsumoto, H. Science Rep. Imp. Univ. Sendai. Japan, 1918, III. 36. 
Giuffrida-Ruggeri, V. Riv. ital. Sociologia. 1915, XIX. 
Giuffrida-Ruggeri, V. Riv. ital. Paleont. 1918, XXIV. 
Giuffrida-Ruggeri, V. A.A.E. 1916, LXV. 

Keith, Sir A. J.R.A.I. 1915, XLV. 

Hrdlicka, A. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 1924, LXIII. 121: 
Hrdlicka, A. Amer. Anthrop. 1912. 

Hrdlicka, A. Bull. B.A.E. 1907, XX XIII. 

Hrdlicka, A. Ibid. 1912, LIT. 

Hrdlicka, A. Ibid. 1918, LXVI. 

Testut, L. B.S.A.L. 1889, VIII. 

Sollas, W. J. Ancient Hunters. Lond., 1923 

Bryn, H. Ymer. 1922, 314. 

Christian, V. Anthropos. 1921-1922, XVI-XVII. 577. 
Christian, V. Mitth. Anthrop. Ges. Wien, 1924, LIV. 1. 


CHAPTER IV 
(a) GENERAL 


Myres, J. L. The Dawn of History. Lond., 1911. 

Luschan, F. v. Huxley Lecture. J.R.A.I., 1911, XLI. 241: > 
Hall, H.R. Ancient History of the Near East. Lond., 1913. 

How, W. W., and Wells, J. A Commentary on Herodotus. Oxford, 1912. 
Beas, F. Descendants of Immigrants. New York, 1912. 


(6) Asta MInoR AND SyRIA 
Myres, J. L. [Dodecannese.] Georgr. Journ., Lond., 1920, LVI. 329 and 
406. 
Luschan, F. v. [Early inhabitants of Lycia.] A.f.A., 1891, XTX. 31. 
Hasluck, F.W. J.R.A.I., 1921, LI. 310. 
Peake, H. J. E. J.R.A.I., 1916, XLVI. 154. 
Buxton, L.H. D. Biometrika. Camb., 1920, XIII. 92. 
Chantre, E. [Armenians.] Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Lyons, 1896. 
Weissenburg, J. [Armenians and Jews.] A.f.A., 1915, XIII. 383. 


Chantre, E, Recherches Anthropologiques dans le Caucase. Paris, 1885- 
1887. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY ©— 253 


14 Zichy, Count de. Voyages au Caucase. Budapest, 1897. 


15 Chantre, E. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Lyons. [Necropolis de Sidon.] 1894. 
(Metwali, Baktyari, Yesidi.] 1895. [Armenians.] 1896. [Kurds.] 1902. 


16 Hogarth, D. G. [Hittites.] J.R.A.I., 1909, KX XIX. 408. 
17 Messerschmidt, L. [Hittites.] Smithsonian Rep., 1903, Washington, 1904. 


(c) JEws 


18 Weissenberg, J. A.f.A., 1895, XXIII. 347. [South Russian.] 
19 Weissenberg, J. [Yemen.] Z.f.E., 1909, XLI. 319. 


20 Weissenberg, J. [Samarqandi.] Mitth. Anthrop. Ges. Wien., 1913, 
XLIII. 257. 


21 Hauschild, M.W. Z.f.E., 1921, LII-LIII. 518. 
22 Salaman, R. N. Journ. Genetics., 1911, I. 273. 


(d) ARABIA 


23 Seligman, C.G. J.R.A.I., 1917, XLVII. 214. [Bibliography.] 
24 Bury, G.W. Arabia Infelix. Lond., 1915. 

25 Christian, V. Anthropos, 1919-1920, XIV.-XV. 

26 Péch, R. Osten und Orient. Wien, 1920, III. (i) 729. 


(e) PerstA AND MippiEe East 


27 Danilov, J. [Persians.] A.f.A., 1900, XX VI. 872. 
28 Husing, R. [Iran.] Mitth. Anthrop. Ges., Wien, 1916, XLVI. 233. 


29 Bogdanof, A. P. [Iranian Colonies in Turkestan.] A.f.A., 1900, XXVI. 
800. 


30 Javorski, W. [Turkoman.] Mil. Acad. Anthrop. Soc., Petrograd, 1895, 
IT. 145. 


31 Ujfalvy, C. E. Essai d’une carte ethnographique de l’ Asie centrale. Paris, 
1896. 


32 Troll, J. Individual Aufnahme central asiatische Eingebornen. Z.f.E., 1890, 
XXII. (226). 


CHAPTER V 


The literature on the ethnography of India is very voluminous. The student 
will find references to all the more important works in the larger summaries 
quoted below. The number of studies on the physical proportions of the 
people is comparatively limited. 


(a) GENERAL 


1 Imperial Gazetteer of India. Oxford, 1909 (26 vols.). 
2 Census of India, 1901 (Anthropometric), Calcutta, 1902-1903. 
3 Census of India, 1911 (Linguistic), Calcutta, 1912. 
4 The Cambridge History of India. Camb., 1922, I. 
5 Smith, V. A. The Early History of India. Third Ed., Oxford, 1914. 
6 Macdonell, A. A. History of Sanskrit Literature. Lond., 1905. 
7 Roberts, 8. G. Historical Geography of India. Oxford, 1916. 
8 Vincent, G. The Defence of India. Oxford, 1923. 
9 Senart, E. Les castes dans lV Inde. Paris, 1896. 
10 Lyall, A.C. Asiatic Studies. Lond. 
11 Bougle, M.C. Essai sur le regime des castes. Paris, 1908. [To be used with 


caution. ] 


254 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
12 Anderson, J.D. The Peoples of India. Camb. Univ. Manuals, 1913. 
13 Giuffrida-Ruggeri, V. Arch. Antrop. Etnol., Florence, 1917, XLVII. 
14 Richards, F. J. Quart. Journ. Mythic. Soc., Madras, 1917, VII. 243. 
15 Risley, SirH. H. The People of India, Lond., 1908. 
16 Turner, Sir W. [Craniometry.] Trans. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, 1899, 
XXXIX. 703; 1901, XL. 59; 1906, XLV. 261; 1913, XLIV. 705. 
See also Holdich (Ch. 2, ref. 10) and Morant (Ch. 1, ref. 14). 


(b) NorrHEeRN INDIA 


17 Tod, J. Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan. Lond., 1829-1832. Re- 
print, Oxford. Ed. W.Crooke. Annals of Mewar. Reprinted separately, 
Lond. [N.D.] Ed. C. H. Payne. 


18 Enthoven, R. E. Tribes and Castes of Bombay. Bombay, 1920-1922. 
[Deals with part of South India also. ] 


19 Crooke, W. The Natives of Northern India. Lond., 1907. 


20 Crooke,W. The Tribes and Castes of N.W. Provinces and Oudh. Lond., 
1896. 


21 Crooke, W. The North-Western Provinces of India. Lond., 1897. 
22 Crooke,W. J.A.I., 1898, XXVIII. 220, J.R.A.I., 1910, XL. 39. 
23 Dalton, E. T. Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal. Calcutta, 1872. 
24 Kirkpatrick, W. An Account of the Kingdom of Nepaul. 1821. 

25 Eickstedt, E.v. [Sikh.] Z.f.H., 1921, LIT. 318. 

26 Eickstedt, E. v. [Panjabi.] Man in India, 1923, III. 161. 

27 Robertson, G.8. The Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush. 1896. 


28 Charles, R. H. [Panjab craniology.] Journ. Anat. Phys., Lond., 1907, 
PGB SE 


29 Holland, Sir T. H. [Kanets.] J.A.I., 1902, XXXII. 96. 
30 Risley, Sir H. H. The Tribes and Castes of Bengal. 1891. 


31 Ethnographic Survey of India. Anthropometric data from Bombay, 
Calcutta, 1907. (See note to 18.) 


(c) SourHERN INDIA 


32 Thurston, E. Castes and Tribes of Southern India. Madras, 1909 (7 vols.). 
33 Thurston, E. Madras Gov. Museum Publs. IV., V. 
34 Schmidt, W. A.f.A., 1910, N.F., IX. 90. 


35 Holland, Sir T. H. The Coorgs and Yeruvas. Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, 
1901, LXX. 59. 


36 Hornell, J. [Southern brachycephals.] Mem. As. Soc., Bengal, 1920, VII. 
139. 


37 Hornell, J. [Extension of Mediterranean race.] J.R.A.I., 1923, LITT. 302. 

38 Hunt, E. H. Hyderabad Cairn Burials. J.R.A.1., 1924, LIV. 140. 

39 Iyer, Anantha Krishna L. K. The Cochin Tribes and Castes. Madras, 1909, 
1912. 


40 Lapicque, L. Bull. Mus. dhist. nat., Paris, 1905, 283. 
41 Rivers, W. H. R. The Todas. Lond., 1906. 
42 Callemand, J. Rev. d’Anthrop, Paris, 1878 (2me §.), I. 607. 


(d) CEYLON 


42 Parker, H. Ancient Ceylon. Lond., 1909. 


43 Sarasin, P., and F., Ergeb. Natur. Forschungen auf Ceylon, 1887-1893, 
III. (Veddas). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 255 


44 Thomson, A. [Veddas.] J.A.I., 1889, XIX. 125. 

45 Seligman, C. G., and Z.B. The Veddas. Camb., 1911. . 
46 Lithy, A. A.f.A., 1912, N.F., XI. 1. 

47 Virchow, R. Z.f.E., XIV. 302 and XVII. 500. 

48 Virchow, R. Abh. K6nigl. Akad., Wiss., 1881. 


(e) THe ANDAMAN IsLANDs. 


49 Brown, A.R. The Andaman Islanders. Camb., 1922. 
50 Flower, Sir W. H. J.A.I., 1879, IX. 108 ; 1884, XIV. 115. 
51 Man, E.H. J.A.I., 1882, XII. 69, ILI 327; 


CHAPTER VI 


For geography see bibliography to Chapter 2, ref. 7,8 and 9; for archeology 
see bibliography to Chapter 4, ref. 6, 7, Spo ls 


1 Jamieson,C.E. The Aborigines of Western China. China Journ. of Arts 
and Science, 1923, I. 376. 


2 Legendre. Bull. Mem. Soc. d’anthrop., Paris, 1910 (6me Series), I. 77, 
158 (Lolo). 


3 Ting, C. K. (should read V.K.). Native Tribes of Yunnan. China Medical 
Journ., March, 1921. [Reprinted in Proc. Anatom. and Anthrop. Soc. 
of China, 1920-1921, Peking, 1921.] 


4 Birkner, F. A.f.A., 1906, IV. 1. 


5 Shirokogoroff, 8S. M. Anthropology of Northern China. Roy. Asiat. Soc. 
(North China Branch, extra vol. III), Shanghai, 1923. 


6 Koganei, Y. Mitth. Med. Fak., Tokio, 1903, IV. 1; Intern. centralblatt 
f. Anthrop., 1902, VII. 130. 


7 Black, D. [Early Chinese.] Paleontologica Sinica (forthcoming). 


8 Hagen, B. Anthropologischer Atlas, Ostasiatischer und Melanesischer 
Volker, Wiesbaden, 1898. 


9 Henry, A. [Lolo.] J.A.I., 1903, XX XIII. 
10 Reicher, M. Zeit. f. Anthrop. u. Morphologie, 1912-1913, XV. 421. 
11 Haberer, K. A. Schddeln and Skeletteile aus Peking. Jena, 1902. 
12 Rose, A., and Brown, J. C. [Lissu] Mem. As. Soc. Bengal, 1910, III. 249. 
See also Morant (I, 14). 


CHAPTER VII 


(a) TIBET 
Rockhill, W. W. Rep. Nat. Mus., 1893 ; Washington, 1895, 673. 
Delisle, F. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., Paris, 1908 (5e Series), IX. 473. 
Morant, G. M. [Craniometry.] Biometrika, Camb., 1923, XIV. 196. 


Grenard, F. Le Turkestan et le Tibet. Mission scientifique dans la haute 
Asie. J.L. Ducreuil du Rhins, Paris, 1890-1895. 


5 Bell, C. Tibet Past and Present. Oxford, 1924. 
See also Turner (V. 16) [1906 and 1913] and Joyce (II. 2). 


mem Ww De 


(6) SINKIANG 
6 Joyce, T. A. J.R.A.I., 1903, XX XIII. 305; 1912, XLIT. 450. 
Stein, Sir Aurel. Serindia. Oxford, 1921, IIT. 1351. 
8 Paissel, V.E. [Taranchi.] A.f.A., 1900, XXVI. 174. 
See also Czaplicka (II. 11) and Broomhall CLESS) 


«1 


256 BIBLIOGRAPHY 


18 


19 
20 
21 
22 
23 


to =_ 


> 


a 


(c) MonGcouLia 
Ivanovski, A. A. [Mongol Torguts.] A.f.A., 1896, XXIV.1; 1900, XXVI. 
852. This summarizes paper in Anthrop. Soc., Moscow, 1893, LX XI. 
Porotov, M. T. (Alar Buriats.] A.f.A., 1896, XXVI. 159. 
Shrendrikoyski, J. J. [Selanga Buriats.] A.f.A., 1900, X XVI. 152. 
Fridolin, J. A.f.A., 1901, X XVII. 304. 


Tori, R., and Torii, K. Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo Imp. Univ., 1914, XXXVI. 
44, 


Deniker, J. Rev. d’Anthropologie. 1884, XIII. 297. 

Howarth, Sir H. H. History of the Mongols. Lond., 1876. 
Carruthers, D. Unknown Mongolia. Lond., 1913. 

Buxton, L.H.D. [Inner Mongolia.] Geo. Journ., Lond., 1913, LXI. 


(d) MANCHURIA 
Torii, R. Journ. Coll. Sci., Tokyo Imp. Uniy., 1914, XXXVI. 
See also Shirokogoroff. (VI. 5). 


(e) Korea y 


Koganei, Y. Z.f.E., 1906, XX XVIII. 513. 

Koganei, Y. Mitth. Med. Fak. Imp. Jap. Univ., Tokio, 1, 226. 

Virchow, R. Z.f.E., 1899, XX XI. 751. 

Kubo. Bettrage zur physischen Anthropologie der Koreaner. Tokio, 1913. 
Chantre, E., and Bourdaret, E. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Lyons, 1902, XXI; 


CHAPTER VIII 


(a) SIBERIA (General) 


Talko-Hryncewicz, J. D. [Early inhabitants.] L’Anthrop., 1896, VII. 80. 


Merhart, G. von. [Archeology of Yenesei.] Amer. Anthrop., 1923, XXV. 
21: 


Goroshchenko. Bull. Krasn. §.E. Sib. Sect. I.R.G.S., 1905, I. 
Goroshchenko. [Soyotes.] Russ, Anthrop. Journ., 1901, IT. 2. 


Goroshchenko and Ivanovski, A. A. [Yenesei.] Russ. Anthrop. Journ.,. 
1907, i. and ii. 


Ivanovski, A.A. Anthropological Composition of the Population of Russia. 
1904. 


Ujfalvy, C. E. Expédition scientifique en Russie, Sibérie et dans le Turkestan. 
Paris, 1878. 


Jochelson-Brodsky, Frau D. [North Siberian peoples.] A.f.A., 1906, 
N.F.V., 1. See also Czaplicka (II. 5). 


(6) WESTERN SIBERIA 
Czaplicka, M.A. Art. Ostyak and Samoyed. Hastings Encyclop. Religion 
and Ethics. 


Roudenko, 8. [Samoyed, Ostyak and Vogul.] Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., 
Paris, 1914 (Série VI.), V. 123. 


Crahmer, W. [Samoyeds.] Z.f.E., 1912, XLIV. 105. 
Montefiore, J. [Samoyeds.] J.A.I., 1894, XXIV. 400. 


Charusin, A. [Kirghiz.] Imp. Soc. Friends of Nat. Sci. Anthrop. and 
Ethnol., Moscow, 1889, LXIII. 1. 


14 


15 
16 
17 
18 
19 


oR oo bo om 


19 


20 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 257 


(c) EASTERN SIBERIA 

Jesup North Pacific Expedition. Various authors. [A mine of information 

on all these northern tribes.] 
Bogoras, W. Amer. Anthrop., 1901, III. 80. 
Iden-Zeller,O. [Chukchee.] Z.f.E., 1911, XLII. 840. 
Schrenck, L. von. Reisen in Amur-Lande. III. St. Petersburg, 1891. 
Czaplicka, M. A. [Tungus.] Scottish Geo. Mag., Edinburgh, 1917, 299. 
Seeland. [Gilyaks.] A.f.A., 1900, XXVI. 790. 


See also Shirokogoroff (VI. 5). 


CHAPTER IX 


(a) ARCHAOLOGY 


Koganei, Y. Globus, 1903, LX XXTV. 101. 

Matsumoto, H. Amer. Anthrop., 1921, XXIII. 50. 

Hasebe, K. Jap, Anthrop. Journ. Tokyo, 1918, XXXTI.; 1920, XXXTV. 
Monro, N. G. Prehistoric Japan. Yokohama, 1911. 


Various authors in the Journal of Research, Imp. Jap. Univ. Kyoto (De- 
partment of Literature). This publication is devoted to the study of 
prehistoric Japan. 


(6) Atinu 


Koganei, Y. Mitth. Med. Fak. Imp. J ap. Univ., Tokyo, 1893, II. 1. 
Koganei, Y. A.f.A., XXVI. 

Montandon, G. Archiv. suisses d’anthrop. gen., 1921, IV. 233. 
Donitz,W. Mitth. Deutsch. Ges. Natur u. Volkerkunde Ostasiens, 1874, VI. 
Scheube, B. Ibid., 1882, XXVI. 


Lefevre, A., et Collignon, R. Rev. d’anthrop., Paris, 1889, XVIII (Sér. 3 
IV. 129) (hair and eye colour). 


Batchelor, Rev. J. The Ainu. Lond., 1901. 


> 


(c) JAPANESE 


Baelz, E. Mitth. Deutch. Ges. Natur u. Volkerkunde Ostasiens, Tokyo, 
1881, IIT. 330; 1885, 1V. 35; 1900, VII. 227. 


Baelz, E. Sitz. Anthrop. Ges., Wien, 1911-1912 [133], Riu Kiu. 
Brinkley, F. Smithsonian Rep., 19083, MDXXXVII. 793. 

See also Morant (I. 14). 

Chamberlain, B, Things Japanese. Lond., 1891. 

Toldt, E. A.f.A., 1903, XXVIII. 143. 


Adachi, B. Zeit. f. Morph. u. Anthrop., Stuttgart [Orbit and general], 
1904, VII. 379[Foot]. Mitt. Med. Fak., Tokyo, 1905, VI. 307 [Hand], id., 
340 [Foot]. Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Tokyo, 1904, XX. 21, and numerous 
other papers on the anthropology of the J apanese referred to in the 
above. 

Shimada, K. [Central nervous system.] Acta schole Med. Univ., Kioto, 
IV., 1921, 319 (in German). 


(d) Ryukyu 
Baelz, E. Sitz. Anthrop. Ges., Wien, 1911-1912 (1912) [133]. 


258 BIBLIOGRAPHY 


(e) Formosa 


21 Turner, Sir William. Proc. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, 1907, XLV. 


22 Report on Control of Aborigines. Gov. of Formosa Bureau of Aboriginal 
Affairs, Taihoku, Formosa, 1911. 


CHAPTER X 
(a) BurMA 


1 Logan, J. R. The Ethnology of Eastern Asia. Journ. Indian Archipelago, 
IV. 478. 
2 McMahon, A. R. The Karens of the Golden Chersonnese. Lond., 1876. 


3 Milne, Mrs. L. The Home of an Eastern Clan. [Palaungs of the Shan 
States.] Oxford, 1924. 
4 Anthropometric Data(Burman). Ethnographic Surv. India, Calcutta, 1906. 
5. ae C.C. Ethnographic Survey of India (Burma). No. 4, Calcutta, 
1919. 
6 Scott, J.G. Burma, A handbook, etc. 1906. 
7 White, Sir H.T. Burma. (Provincial Geographies of India.) Camb., 1923. 
8 Temple, Sir R. C. D. Journ. Roy. Soc. Arts, Lond., 1910, LVIII. 695. 
9 Tildesley, M. A. [Craniometry.] Biometrika. Camb., 1921, DOLTIG Ia: 
10 Turner, Sir W. Trans. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, 1913, XLIX. 719. 


In addition to the “ Imperial Gazetteer of India”? the following gazetteers of 
Burma have been published 


11 Scott, Sir G. Upper Burma. 
12 Carey, Sir B. S., and Tuck, H. N. Chin Hills. 
13 Hertz, W.A. Myitkyina District. 


(b) Stam AND INDO-CHINA 


14 Graham, A. W. Stam (Handbook). 1912. 

15 Verneau, R., and Pannetier, G. [Cambodgia]. L’Anthrop., Paris, 1921, 
XXXII. 279. 

16 Deniker, J., and Bonifacy, A. L. M. Bull. et Mem. Soc. Anthrop., Paris, 
1907, 5e Série, VIIT. 106. 

17 Zaborowski, S. Ibid., 1897, 4e Série, VIII. 44, and 1900, 5e Série, I. 327. 

18 Roux, P. [Tonkin.] IJbid., 1905, 5e Série, VI. 155 and 324. 

19 Maurel, E. Ibid. 1889, 2e Série, IV. 459. 

20 Verneau, R. L’Anthrop., Paris, 1909, XX. 545. 

21 oye M. Les races de Haut Tonkin de Phong-Tho a Lang Son. Paris, 
1924. 

(c) THE Matay PENINSULA 

22 Martin, R. Die Inlandstamme der Malayischen Halbinsel. Jena, 1905. 
[The standard textbook and a mine of information. } 

23 Annandale, N., and Robinson, H.C. Fasciculi Malayenses. Lond., 1903. 


24 Skeat, W. W., and Blagden, C.O. Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula. 
Lond., 1903. 


25 Winstedt, R. O. Malaya. Lond., 1923. 


26 Morgan, J. L’age de pierre polie dans la presqwile Malaise. L’ Homme, 
II. 494. 


27 Swettenham, Sir F. The Real Malay. Lond., 1900. 


28 
29 
30 


31 
32 


33 
34 


35 
36 


37 
38 


39 


40 
4] 
42 


43 
44 


45 
46 
47 
48 


49 


50 


51 
52 
53 
54 


55 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 259 


Swettenham, Sir F. British M alaya. Lond., 1906. 
Turner, Sir W. Trans. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, 1907, XLV. 


Evans, I. H. N. Religion, Folklore and Custom in North Borneo and the 
Malay. Camb., 1923. 


Skeat, W.W. Malay Magic. Lond., 1900. 
Schmidt, W. A.f.A., 1906, N.F., V. 59. 


(2) Tue Matay ArcHIPELAGO 


Giuffrida-Ruggeri, V. Archiv. Anthrop. Etnol., 1916, XLVI. 125. 


Hagen, B. Anth. Studien aus Insulinde. Ver. Kon, Akad. Wiss., Amster- 
dam, 1890, XXVIII. 


Hamy, E.T. Les races malaiques et americaines. L’Anthrop., 1896, VII. 


Hamy, E. T. [Alfourous de Gilolo.] Bull. Soc. Geogr., Paris, 1877, 6, 
XIII. 491. 


Meyer, A.B. The Negritos. Dresden, 1899. 


Quatrefages, J. L. de. The Pygmies. Lond., 1895. [Les Pygmées, Paris, 
1887.] 


Turner, Sir W. Trans. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, 1907, XLV. 781. 


(e) SuMaTRA 


Hagen, B. Veroffen. Stadt. Volker-Mus. Frankfurt a. M., 1908, IT. 
Volz, W. A.f.A., 1900, XXVI. 719 ; 1908, XXXV. 89. 
Volz, W. Nord-Sumatra. (Two vols.) Berlin, 1909 and 1912. 


(f) Java 


Garrett, T.R. H. J.R.A.I., 1912, XLII. 53. 
Stratz, C. H. [Javanese Women.] A.f.A., 1899, XXV. 233. 


See also Hagen (Ch. VI., ref. 8). 


(g) BorNnEOo 


Haddon, A. 0. Archiv. Anthop. Etnol., Florence, 1901, XX XI. 341. 
Haddon, A.C. Appendix to 47. 

Hose, C., and McDougall, W. The Pagan Tribes of Borneo. Lond., 1912. 
Kohlbrugge, J. H. Mitth. Niederl. Reichmus, f. Volk., IT. 6. 


(h) CELEBES 
Sarasin, F. Mat. N aturgesch. der Insel Celebes. Wiesbaden, 1906, V., Pt. 2 


(¢) PHILIPPINE IsLANDS 


Beyer, H.O. The Population of the Philippine Islands in 1916. Manila, 
1917. 


Folkmar, D. Album of Philippine Types. Manila, 1904. 

Meyer, A.B. The Negritos. Dresden, 1899. 

Reed, W. A. Negritos of Zambales. Etno. Surv., Manila, 1905, II. 1. 

Sullivan, L. R. Racial types in the Philippine Islands. Anthropolog. 
papers, Amer. Mus. of Nat. Hist., New York, 1918, XXIII. 1. [Reference 
to all the literature. ] 

Bean, R. B. Racial Anatomy of the Philippine Islanders. Philadelphia, 
1910 [an unconventional work]. 


INDEX OF TRIBAL, RACIAL, 


AND 


NATIONAL NAMES 


Achakzai Pathan, 124 
Aeta, 45 
Afghan, 45 
Ainu, 43, 44, 69, 77, 78, 199, 200, 
206, 208, 257 
Czaplicka’ 8 classification, 196 
physical characters, 210 ff. 
Aksu, 173, 175 
Aleut, 196 
Alfourou, 259 
Alpine race, 6, 44, 49, 53 ff., 80, 113, 
146, 154, 172, 174, 176, 183, 198, 
231 
Altaian race, 47, 195, 201 
Altaicus, Homo, 47 
Amerinds, 62, 82, 200 
Andamanese, 5, 45, 142, 255 
physical characters, 145 
Annamese, 161, 232, 233 
Armenians, 95 ff., 100, 252, 253 
Armenoid race, 53, 55ff., 80, 88, 90, 91, 
96, 98, 100, 103, 104, 110,113,132, 
140, 144, 160, 174, 177, 183 ff. 
Armeno- Pamirensis, Homo, 46 
Arabs, 2, 43, 99, 159 
in China, 159 
in Java, 239 
in Malaya, 235 
physical characters, 105 ff. 
Arora, 125 
Aryans, 99, 129, 137, 174 
Aryo-Dravidians, 126, 130 ff. 
Assyroid race, 43 
Australian aborigines, 4, 5, 22, 34, 213 
Awan, 125 


Babhan, 126 
Badajas, 127 
Baktyari, 253 
Balti, 45 
Baluchi, 46, 124 
Bashilanges, 20 
Baskir, 197 
Battaks, 237 
Batin, 237 
Beh-gen, 155 
Bektasch, 91 
Bengali, 126, 144 
Besisi, 236 
Bin-muh, 155 


Bontok, 242 
Botocudos, 20 
Brahui, 46 
Brown race, 30, 42 ff., 52, 66, 70, 79, 
102, 111, 136 ££., 141, 157, 158 
Buriats, 47, 56, 57, 174, 179, 197, 198, 
203 
physical characters, 180 ff. 
Alar, 181, 256 
Selanga, 181, 256 
Burmese, 171, 179, 228, 231, 237 
Bushmen, 5 


Cambodgians, 232 
Cantonese, 234 
Carians, 1 
Caucasians, 3, 230 
Chahkhar, 181 
Chakmas, 127, 131, 132, 142 
Chamar, 126, 133 
Chapogi, 198 
Ch’iangs, 156 
Chiam, 228 
Chinese, 6, 20, 22, 46, 56 ff., 64, 65, 
154, 175 
aboriginal tribes, 154 ff. 
ancient, 153 
hybrids with Mongols, 181 
in Java, 239 
in Malaya, 234 
in Mongolia, 185 
migrations. 153 
northern, 164 
physical characters, 160 ff. 
southern, 164, 233 
Chins, 228 
Ch’ing Kehtu, 155 
Chin-miao, 157 
Choschot, 180 
Chuhra, 125 
Chukchee, 47, 196, 199, 257 
Chung-chia, 154 
Chuvanzy, 196 
Cinghalese, 144 
Coorgs, 125, 130, 254 
Coreans. See Koreans 
Cro-Magnon race, 80 


Dardi, 45 
Dasyu, 129, 137 


261 


262 INDEX OF TRIBAL NAMES 


Dehwar, 46 Japanese, 206 ff., 257 
Deshasth Brahman, 125 in Malaya, 235 
Dinaric, 53, 55, 80 origin of, 217 
Dissentis type, 20, 57 physical characters, 214 ff. 
Dolan, 173, 175 Jats, 122, 132 
Don Cossacks, 180 Javanese, 238 
Dosadh, 126 Jews, 96 ff., 160, 252, 253 
Dravidians, 4, 43, 52, 102, 123, 127, 
129 ff., 143, 144, 229, 254 Kachhi, 126 
Drupa, 170 Kachins, 147, 228 
Druses, 100 Kaizak, 174 
Durbot, 180 Kaizak-Kirghiz, 114 
Dzungar, 180 Kalang, 238 
Kalmuck, 56, 57, 179 
Eleuts, 179, 180 Kamchadal, 196, 199 
Eskimo, 20, 43, 82 Kanarese, 20, 136 
American, 82, 200 Kanets, 254 
Asiatic, 82, 196, 199 Kara-Kalpak, 114 
Ethiopic, 3 Kara-Kirghiz, 114 
European races. See Alpine, Medi- Karens, 171, 228, 230, 240, 258 
terranean, Nordic, etc. Kashmiri, 45, 171 
Kayans, 240 
Finns, 195, 196 Kayasths, 126 
‘* Flowered races,’ 155 Kazan Tatars, 197 
Fuegians, 171 Kelantan, 235 
Fukienese, 234 Kelpin, 173, 175 
Kenyans, 240 
Galtchas, 113 Khalkha, 179 ff., 198 
Georgianus, Homo, 46 Khasia, 127, 142 
Gilyaks, 214, 257 Khmer, 227, 232 
Goldi, 198 Kipchak, 114 
Greeks, 90, 91 Kirghiz, 173, 175, 197, 256 
Grussini, 46, 98 Klemantan, 240 
Gujar, 125, 128 Kochh, 126, 142 
Gurings, 127 Koibales, 201 
Gurkhas, 122 Koiri, 126 
Kolarians, 123 
Hakkas, 157 Kondhs, 120 
‘* Han type,” 61, 63, 64 Koreans, 43, 163, 200, 216, 256 
Hazara, 47, 124 physical characters, 190 
Hindus, 143 Koryak, 199 
Hittites, 53, 253 Kuis, 228 
Hsien-yuen, 173 Kunbis, 125 
Huns, 128, 129 Kurds, 93, 100, 253 
Ibans, 240 Lamut, 198 
Ifugao, 242 Land Dayak, 241 
Th, 154 Lao, 227 
Tli-Tatars, 114, 173 Lapps, 202 
Imeri, 46 Lepcha, 46, 127, 131, 142, 147 
Indo-Afghans, 43, 111, 123, 144 Limen, 155 
Indo-Afghanus, Homo, 45 Lissu, 255 
Indo-Aryans, 45, 111, 124, 130 ff.,144 Loblik, 173, 175 
Indo-Chinese, 43 Lolo, 155, 156, 171, 228, 255 
Indo-Iranus, Homo, 46 Lori, 111 


Indonesians, 43, 44, 227, 242. See Lycians, 91, 94 
also under Nesiot 


Iranians, 45, 46, 112, 113, 156 Madurese, 238 

Irano-Mediterraneus, Homo, 45 Magyars, 43 
Mahar, 125 

Jaintia, 127 Mahrattas, 129 


Jalari, 127 Malayalis, 136 


INDEX OF TRIBAL NAMES 


Malays, 65, 67, 68, 171, 218, 233 ff., 
242, 258 
history, 237. See also wnder Proto- 
Malays 
Mals, 126 
Man, 154 
Manchu, 43, 47, 149, 154, 163, 180, 
185, 198, 216, 256 
physical characters, 187 ff. 
Man-tse, 44 
Maniza, 196 
Manyarg, 198 
Maravar, 143 
Maronites, 100 
Medes, 108 
Mediterranean race, 5, 6, 30, 46, 49, 
50, 58, 77, 79, 88, 90, 98, 111, 
138, 157, 160, 185, 212 
Melanesians, 45, 136 
Melano-Indians, 123 
Meng-chia, 154, 155 
Metwali, 100, 253 
Miao, 154, 155 
Mingreli, 46 
Mir Jats, 132 
Mirs, 127 
Mois, 227, 228, 232 
Mongolians, 43, 176, 232 
Mongolo-Dravidians, 126, 
141 
Mongoloid race, 44, 56, 57, 130, 142 
Mongols, 43, 47, 56, 57, 64, 149, 154, 
SO eLOssel OSs Ose lado .m Lib: 
179 ff., 195, 202, 256 
distribution, 184 
history, 180, 183 
physical characters, 181, 186 
Mon-Khmer, 129, 143, 146, 236 
Mons, 228 
Montesos, 242 
Moriori, 171 


130 ff., 


Naga, 146, 227, 228 

Nagar Brahman, 130 

Nair, 121 

Nambudris, 121 

Nearcticus, Homo, 47 

Negrillos, 67, 145 

Negritos, 43, 45, 49, 65 ff., 104, 136, 
145, 227, 229, 232, 233, 238, 241, 
242, 247, 259 

physical characters, 145, 2365 ff., 

242 

Negroes, 4, 5, 58, 67 ff., 83, 88, 104 

Oceanic, 68 

Nepalese, 143, 171 

Neo-Siberians, 196, 202 

Nesiots, 52, 65, 67, 146, 157, 158, 
160, 218, 229, 233, 237, 240, 242, 
243 

Newars, 122 

Nilotic Negroes, 22 


263 


Nordic race, 6, 22, 49, 50, 53, 69, 77, 
785) 90,93, L100; LOI, 138) 212. 
See also under Proto-Nordic 

Nosu, 156 


Orang Kubu, 237 

Oriental race, 52, 101 

Oroch, 198 

Orochan, 198 

Oroke, 198 

Ostyak, 196, 199, 201, 202, 256 


Palwarcticus, Homo, 46 

Paleasiatics, 63, 162, 191, 195, 198, 
200 

Paleeo-Siberians, 196, 200, 201, 204 

Palaungs, 228, 258 

Pamiri, 45 n., 46, 176 

Pangan, 235 

Paniyans, 127 

Papuans, 45 

Pareceans, 63, 141, 143, 146, 157, 172, 
176, 184, 200, 229, 237, 239 

Patagonians, 22 

Persians, 45, 108, 111 

Polynesians, 5 

Po-tse, 157 

Prabhus, 125, 130 

Pre-Dravidians, 111, 136, 139, 146, 
236, 242, 243 

Pre-Nordics, 50, 77 

Proto-Dravidians, 136 

Proto-Egyptians, 50, 53, 88, 103, 104 

Proto-Ethiopians, 80 

Proto-Malays, 44, 65, 218, 231, 233, 
235 ff., 240 ff. 

Protomorphus, Homo, 46 

Proto-Nordics, 44, 50, 51, 78, 110 ff., 
112, .138, 139, 154, 172, 194, 
199 ff., 214 

Pulaiyan, 128 

Punans, 240 

Punjabi, 45, 235 

Punti, 157 

Pygmies. See Negrillos and Negritos 


Qirghiz, Qara-Qirghiz, etc. See under 
Kara-Kirghiz, Kirghiz 


Rajbansi Magh, 126 
Rajput, 45, 122, 125, 128, 138 
Russians, 39 


Sakai, 126, 235, 236 

Samarqandi, 98, 253 

Samoyeds, 195, 197, 201, 202, 256 
San-Tak, 157 

Sarts, 174 

Scyths, 128, 129, 140 
Scytho-Dravidians, 125, 130 ff. 
Selung, 228 

Semang, 45, 236 


264 INDEX OF TRIBAL NAMES 


Semites, 99 

Senoi, 236 

Shanans, 127, 128 

Shan, 227 

Shia, 93 

Siamese, 227, 233 

Sikh, 45 

Sinicus, Homo, 46 

Solon, 198 

Soyotes, 197, 256 

Spaniards, 20 

Sundanese, 238 

Sumerians, 44, 89, 92, 101 ff. 
“Sung type, ” 63, 64 

Suomi, 196 

Svani, 46 


Tadchadsky, 91 
T’ai, 155 
Tajiks, 112 ff. 
Talaing, 228 
tee chta 136, 235 
Taranchi, 47, 114, 173 ff., 255 
Tasmanian aborigines, 22, 45, 136 
Tatars, Altaian, 180 
Ili, 114, 173 
Kazan, 197 
Telenghites, 179, 180 
Telugus, 136 
Tenggerese, 238 
Thai, 227 
Tho, 227 


Tibetans, 43, 46, 128, 143, 154, 162, 


164, 168, 170 ff. 
Tibeto- Burmans, 127, 230 
Tibetanus, Homo, 46 
Toala, 249 
Todas, 254 
Torgot, 47, 173, 179, 180, 256 
Tse-Li, 157 
T’u, 154 


Tubas, 195 
Tungus, 47, 149, 162, 163, 185, 187, 
198, 257 
physical characters, 202 
racial movements, 199 
Tupo, 195 
Turko-Finns, 43 . 
Turko-Iranians, 124, 130 ff. 
Turko-Mongols, 176, 198 
Turkomans, 48, 77, 109, 110, 112, 253 
Turks, 43, 44, 91 n., 95, 99, 114, 128, 
LOO SUITS 6: 177, 180, 195 
Eastern, 197 
Iranian, 174, 198 
Osmanli, 198 
Siberian, 197 
Turanian, 197 
relation to Mongols, 185 
Tziam, 228 


Ugrian, 43, 44 
U-lat, 180 
Urat, 180 
Uriankhai, 201 
Uzbegs, 114 


Veddas, 23, 143, 144, 236, 255 
Vogul, 196, 201, 256 


““ White races,” 42 ff., 49, 58 


Yakut, 197, 203 

Yao, 154 

“* Yellow races,” 48, 56, 58 ff. , 66, 70, 

80 ff., 135, 141, 142, 199 

divisions of, 62 

Yeneseians, 195 

Yeruvas, 254 

Yesidi, 100, 253 

Yueh-chi, 156 

Yukaghir, 196 


GENERAL INDEX 


Abadie, M., 258 
Acheulean period, 72 
Adachi, B., 257 
Afghanistan, 37, 47, 107, 108 ff. 
Akhotsk, Sea of, 198 
Akka Tag, 167 
Aleutian Islands, 32, 37, 196 
Altai Mountains, 36, 40, 44, 167, 169, 
174, 177, 193 
Altyn Dagh, 169 
Amdo, 168 
America, early man in, 81, 82 
Amoy, 234 
Amur, River, 39, 187, 198 
Anadir, River, 196 
Anatolia, 35, 37, 85 ff. 
Anau, 72, 74, 153, 159, 183 
Andaman Islands, 37, 43, 145, 242, 
255 
Anderson, J. D., 254 
Andersson, J. G., 153, 252 
Anghelu Rhu, 92 
Angora, 86 
Anhui, 157 
Annam, 155 
Annandale, N., 258 
Anping, 155 
Anshi, 178 
Anshun, 155, 156 
Antelias, 75 
Aomori, 205 
Aoshima, 207, 210 
Arabia, 37, 85, 99, 105 ff., 253 
Arabian desert, 41 
Arakan, 220 
Aral-Caspian basin, 114 
Aral Sea, 41, 192 
Archeology, 71 ff., 153, 194, 206, 252, 
256, 257 
Arctic Ocean, 35, 40 
een, climatic conditions in, 40, 
3 
Aristotle, 1, 2 
Armenia, 35, 37, 105 
Asia, Arctic, 192 ff. 
Central, 36, 167 ff. 
climate of, 39 
early man in, 71 ff. 
Minor, 72, 80, 94, 252 
racial geography of, 32 


Asia, Arctic, South-eastern, 220 ff. 
Western, 84 ff. 

Assam, 46, 47, 129, 146, 258 

Astrakhan, 180 

Aurignacian, 72 

Australia, 33 

Averages, significance of, 8 ff. 

Ayar, Lake, 178 


Bab-el-Mandeb, Straits of, 34 

Baelz, E., 191, 214, 216, 257 

Baikal, Lake, 198 

Balgrash, Lake, 169 

Bali, 241 

Balkash, Lake, 41, 169, 178 

Baltic Sea, 50 

Baluchistan, 37, 107, 108, 111 

Bankok, 221 

Banners, Manchu, 188 
Mongol, 181 n. 

Barguzin, 202 

Barkul, 169, 178 

Batang, 168 

Batchelor, Rev. J., 257 

Baur, 251 

Baye, J. de, 252 

Bean, R. B., 259 

Behring Strait, 32, 82, 192 

Bell, Sir Charles, 255 

Berezov, 197 

Bernier, F., 2 

Beyer, H. O., 259 

Biasutti, R., 250 

Bihar, 126 

Biometry, 7 ff., 208 

Birkner, F., 165, 255 

Bitchu, 207 

Black, Davidson, 60, 75, 153, 255 

Blagden, C. O., 258 

Blumenbach, J. F., 3, 250 

Boas, 96,97, 252 | 

Bogdanof, A. P., 253 

Bogoras, W., 257 

Bokhara, 114, 169 

Borneo, 67, 224, 226, 240 ff., 259 

Bougle, M. C., 252 

Boule, M., 71, 76 ff., 252 

Bourdaret, E., 256 

Brinkley, F., 257 

Broca, P., 18 


265 


266 


Bronze Age, 80, 91, 194 

Brooks, C. E. P., 250 

Broomhall, T. H., 251 

Brown, A. R., 255 

Brown, J. C., 255 

Bryn, H., 252 

Budapest, 57 

Burma, 47, 147, 149, 155, 220, 233, 
258 

Bury, G. W., 253 


Callemand, J., 254 
Cambodgia, 227 ff., 258 
Carchemish, 101, 103 
Carey, Sir B. S., 258 
Carr-Saunders, A. M., 
Carruthers, D., 256 
Caspian Sea, 41 
Caste, 121, 134 
Caucasus, 252 
Celebes, 223, 224, 226, 259 
Ceylon, 51, 61, 67, 143, 144, 254 
Chaatas masks, 194-5 
Chalcolithic Period in China, 74, 75, 
153 

Chamberlain, B., 
Chamdo, 168 
Chancelade cranium, 82 
Chang Tang, 167 
Changteh, 155 
Chanpai-Shan, 186 
Chantre, E., 100, 252, 253, 256 
Charklik, 173 
Charles, R. H., 
Charusin, 256 
Chekiang, 157 
Chellean period, 72 
Cherchen, River, 169 
Chihli, 150, 163 
Chikuzen, 215 
China, 148 ff., 251, 255 

aboriginal tribes i in, 152, 154 ff. 

ancient remains in, 73 

Chalcolithic Period in, 74 

ethnological divisions, 149 

Neanderthal man in, 75 

Neolithic Period in, 74 

prehistory, 252 

southern, 151 

(See also under names of provinces.) 
Chikuzen, 216 
Chinfeng Chow, 156 
Chin Hills, 220, 221, 258 
Christian, V., 252, 253 
Chiskaya Bay, 197 
Climate, Asiatic, 39 

India, 117 
Climatic conditions, effect of, 21, 22 
Coefficient of correlation, 10 

racial likeness, 11, 12 

variation, 9 
Collignon, R., 


251 


257 


254 


23, 257 


GENERAL INDEX 


Communications, Western Asia, 88 ff. 
Afghanistan, 109 
China, 148, 149, 178 
Northern India, 116 

Conklin, E. G., 251 

Contingency, theory of, 10 

Coorg, 125 

Correlation, theory of, 10 

Crahmer, W., 256 

Cranial base, 19 

Crooke, W., 128, 129, 254 

Cyprus, 11, 29, 56, 95, 250 
prehistory, 91, 92 

Czaplicka, M. A., 114, 174, 187, 194, 

196, 202, 203, 2515 256; 257 


Daghestan, 98 

Dalton, E. T., 254 

Danilov, J., 253 

Darwin, C., 3 

Deccan, 4, 118, 129 

Delisle, F., 255 

Deniker, J., 6, 20, 43, 52, 55, 97, 123, 
179, 182, 195, 196, 227, 228, 250, 
256, 258 

Deserts, effect on man, 41 

in Western Asia, 86 

Dixon, R. B., 250 

Djokjakarta, 239 

Dolichocephaly, 19 

Dolon Nor, 178 

Donitz, W., 257 

Duab of Turkestan, 109 


Dubois, J., 71 
Duckworth, W. L. H., 3, 4, 56, 250, 
251 


Dynastic Period, in Egypt, 80 
Dzungaria, 149, 169, 178 


East Indian Archipelago, 37, 223 ff. 

East Indies, ethnology of, 224 ff. 

Easter Island, 33 

Ebi, Lake, 178 

Economics in relation to ethnology, 
246 

Egypt, 53, 79, 80, 88 

Hikstedt, 254 

Ektag Altai Mountains, 178 

Elam, 108 

Elburz Mountains, 85, 89 

Elephas primigenius, 73, 75 

Enthoven, R. E., 254 

Environment, effects on man, 16, 17, 
25 fi. 

Erzeroum, 86 

Ethnic movements in Far East, 191 

Euphrates, River, 38, 103 

European colonization, effect of, 246 

Evans, I. H. N., 259 

Evolution, progressive, 17 

Eye colour, 25 ff 

form, 61 


GENERAL INDEX 


Face, architecture of the, 58 

Fauna, in relation to man, 76 

Fengtien, 74, 153, 186 

Ferghana, 113, 114 

Fischer, 52, 101, 251 

Fleure, H. J., 50, 77, 134, 251 

Flower, Sir W., 250, 255 

Folkmar, D., 259 

Foochow, 157 

Food, effect of, 23 

Forests, temperate, 40 
tropical, 42 

Formosa, 37, 157, 205, 258 

Fossil man, 252 

Fridolin, J., 256 

Fujiyama, 205 

Fukien, 24, 157, 219 

Fu-nui Shan, 152 


Galton, Sir F., 7 

Ganges, River, 38, 116, 117 

Garrett, T. H. R., 238, 259 

Geography, racial, 32, 120 

Germ-plasm, 16 

Ghats, Western, 39, 118 

Ghenghis Khan, 56, 180 

Gilbert Islands, 26 

Giuffrida-Ruggeri, V., 45 ff., 50, 76, 
79, 250, 251, 252, 254, 259 

Gobi, 36, 41, 148, 178 ff., 185, 199 

Goroshchenko, 194, 256 

Graham, A. W., 258 

Great Lakes, 39 

Grenard, F., 255 

Grimble, A., 26, 251 

Ginther, H. F. K., 101, 251 


Haberer, K. A., 255 

Haddon, A. C., 14, 44 ff., 62, 65, 
HOM 144, 147,172, 191, 228, 
230, 237, 240, 242, 250, 251, 259 

Hagen, B., 255, 259 

Hainan, 157 

Hair, 25 ff., 49, 60 

Hall, H. R:, 102, 252 

Hamada, 206 ff., 252 

Hami, 169, 178 

Hamy, E. T., 250, 259 

Hankow, 150 

Hasebe, K., 215, 252, 257 

Hasluck, F. W., 92, 252 

Hauschild, M. W., 253 

Head-form, factors contributing to, 
19 

Henry, A., 255 

Heritable characters, 16 

Herodotus, 1 

Hertz, W. A., 258 

Himalaya, 116, 126, 167 

Hindu Kush, 45, 111 

Hingi, 155, 156 

Ho-chow, 169 


267 


Hogarth, D. G., 251, 253 

Hokkaido, 37, 205, 206 

Holdich, Sir T., 111, 251 

Holland, Sir T. H., 254 

Homer, 1, 2 

Honan, 150, 153 

Honshu, 205 

Hornell, J., 254 

Hose, C., 240, 259 

How, W. W., 252 

Howarth, Sir. H. H., 256 

Hrdlicka, A., 44, 81, 251, 252 

Hsin-ts’eng, 156 

Huai, Mountains, 150, 152 

Hunan, 155 

Hungary, 55 

Hunt, E. H., 130, 140, 254 

Huntingdon, E., 109, 251 

Husing, R., 104, 253 

Huxley, T. H., 3, 34, 250 

Hwang Ho, 36, 38, 149, 150 
palzolithic stations near, 73 

Hybrids, human, 16 


Iden-Zeller, O., 257 
Idzumi, 207 
Ikishima Islands, 215 
Ili, River, 169, 174, 180 
Immigrants, Jewish, into America, 96 
Index, cephalic, 20, 27, 48, 130, 141 
nasal, 21, 28, 49, 66, 133, 134 
India, 52, 61, 67, 115 ff., 253 ff. 
food materials in, 119 
influence on Malaya, 235 
jungle tribes, 136 
negritos in, 145 
paleoliths in, 72 
racial stocks, 135 ff. 
Indian Ocean, 34, 35 
Indo-China, 43, 152, 258 
ancient remains in, 74 
Indo-Gangetic plain, 116 
Indonesia, 220 ff., 240, 243, 259 
Indus, 116, 117 
Inland Sea (Japan), 215 
** Insulinde,”’ 37, 224 
Irak, 85 
Iran, 35, 37, 88, 105, 253 
Iranian Asia, inhabitants, 90 
Irkutsk, 72, 177, 193 
Irrawaddy, River, 220 
Irtish, River, 40, 178 
Ishikawa, 215 
Ivanovski, A. A., 114, 174, 180, 188 
256 
Iyer, A. K., 254 


Jamieson, C. E., 156, 255 

Japan, 35, 37, 148 
archeology, 206 ff., 257 
climate, 205 
kitchen-middens, 73 


268 


Japan, migrations into, 209 
modern inhabitants, 210 
palzoethnology, 206 
racial geography, 205 ff. 
Java, 67, 71, 223, 225, 238, 259 
Javorski, W., 109, 111, 253 
Jaw, form of, 58 
Jesup expedition, 62, 198, 257 
Jili, 169 
Jochelson-Brodsky, D., 198, 203, 256 
Joyce, T. A., 43, 68, 171, 173, 175, 
176, 227, 230, 251, 255 
Jungle, influence on man, 222 


Kabul, 137 

Kagoshima, 205 

Kaifeng, 152, 160 

Kalgan, 178 

Kamchatka, 37, 196 

Kansu, 148, 150, 168, 176 
paleolithic stations in, 73, 74 

Karakoram, 178 
mountains, 167 

Karenni, 221 

Kashan, 86 

Kashgar, 169 

Kashgaria, 149, 152 

Kashmir, 125 

Kawachi, 206 

Keane, 2, 250, 251 

Keith, Sir A., 16, 19, 72, 250, 251, 252 

Keriya, 173 

Kerman, 86 

Kham, 164, 168, 170 

Khatanga, River, 197 

Khingan Mountains, 36, 40, 177, 186 

Khiva, 114, 169 

Khorassan, 89 

Khotan, 169, 173 

Kiangsi, 155, 157 

King Yang, 73 

Kirghiz Steppes, 193 

Kirkpatrick, W., 254 

Kish, 56, 92, 101 

Kitchen-middens, 73 

Kiushiu, 205, 215 

Ko, 73, 206, 207 

Koganei, Y., 163, 164, 171, 206, 209, 

211, 255, 256, 257 

Kohlbrugge, J. H., 259 

Kokonor, 156, 168, 170 

Kolyma, 196 

Konia, 86 

Korea, 163, 189 ff., 205, 215, 256 
relation to Japan, 191 

** Korean Gate,’’ 148 

Korla, 175 

Krasnoyarsk, 72 

Kublai Khan, 56 

Kubo, T., 190, 256 

Kuldja, 173 

Ku-ma-cheeh, 169 


GENERAL INDEX 


Kun Lun, 35, 36, 167, 169, 205 
Kurdistan, 37, 86 

Kurgans, 194, 195 

Kuril Islands, 209 

Kwangsi, 149, 155, 157 
Kwantung, 155, 157 
Kweichow, 155 
Kwei-wa-cheng, 169, 178 
Kyoto, 208, 215 


Landenberger, E., 225 
Langdon, 8., 101, 103 
Language, as a test of race, ] 
Lapicque, L., 254 
Lapithos, 56 : 
Lartet, E., 72 

Lebanon, Mount, 100 
Lefevre, A., 257 
Legendre, 255 

Leiper, R. T., 249 

Lena, River, 39, 192 
Lenz, 251 

Leontes, River, 100 
Leucoderm, 45 

Lhasa, 167 

Linneus, 2, 250 

Little, A., 167, 251 

Lob Nor, 169, 178 
Locality, effect of, 23 
Loess, ancient remains in, 73 
Logan, J. R., 258 
Loochow, see Ryu Kyu 
Lowis, C. C., 258 
Luschan, F. v., 90 ff, 252 
Luthy, A., 255 

Luzon, 242 

Lyall, A. C., 253 

Lycia, 91, 252 

Lyde, L. W., 251 


Macdonell, A. A., 253 
Madagascar, 35, 68 


‘Madras, 72 


Magdalenian period, 72 
Mainoff, 203 
Malabar, 121 
Malacca, 235 
Malaria, 24 
Malar bones, 58 
Malay Archipelago, 259. (See also 
under names of islands.) 
aborigines, 236 ff. 
Peninsula, 43, 45, 66, 145, 221, 
233 ff., 258 
Malta, 34, 92 
Man, E. H., 255 
Manchuria, 148, 163, 177, 186 ff., 256 
Mandible, 58 
Marco Polo, 56 
Martin, R., 66, 68, 211, 250, 251, 258 
Masseter muscles, 58 
Mathew, R., 75, 251 


GENERAL INDEX 


Matsumoto, H., 75, 207, 209, 252, 257 

Maurel, E., 258 

McDougall, W., 240, 259 

McMahon, A. R., 258 

Mean, significance of, 8 

Measures of dispersion, 8, 9 

Mediterranean Sea, 34, 35, 41, 87, 90 

Mekong, River, 221 

Mekran, 109 

Melanesia, 223 

Melanocroid, 4 

Menam, 221 

Menankerbau, 65, 237 

Mentawei Islands, 237 

Me Ping, 228 

Merhart, G. v., 256 

Meshed, 86, 89 

Mesopotamia, 37, 38, 56, 79, 100 ff. 

Messerschmidt, L., 253 

Meyer, A. B., 259 

Middle East, 85, 107 ff. 

Migrations, 78, 87, 101, 235 

Milne, L., 258 

Mindanao, 242 

Ming dynasty, 179, 185 

Miocene, 76 

Misery spots, 23 

Mississippi, River, 39 

Miyato, 207 

Molucca Islands, 223, 224, 226 

Mongol languages, 182 

Mongolia, 148, 150, 177 ff., 198, 256 

Inner, 163, 180, 256 
Mongolian fold, 61, 182 
plateau, 36 

Monro, N. G., 257 

Montandon, G., 210, 212, 256 

Montefiore, J., 256 

Morant, G. M., 12, 52, 143, 144, 161, 
162, 164, 170, 171, 181, 182, 215, 
230, 232, 238, 250, 255 

Morgan, J., 258 

Mousterian Period, 72, 73 

Muller, Max, 124 

Myres, J. L., 112, 252 


Nan-Shan, 149, 152, 153, 178 
Narbada, 39, 117 

Nasal bones, 58 

_ Neanderthal man, 75 
Neolithic Period, 74, 158 
New Britain, 20 

New Guinea, 45, 145, 224, 242 
Nias Islands, 44, 251 
Nicobar Islands, 37 

Nile, River, 38 

Ning Hsia, 73 

Nippon, 214, 215 

Niya, 173 


Obi, River, 39, 41, 192, 196, 201 
Oceania, 33 


269 


Okayama, 209, 215, 216 
Olekima, River, 198 
Olgontorsky Cape, 196 
Orbit, form of, 54 
Ordos, 73, 149, 178, 179 
Oust Kiakhta, 194 


Pacific Islands, 33 
Paissel, V. E., 175, 255 
Palezoliths, 72 ff. 
Palasan, 242 * 
Palestine, 99 
Pamirs, 35, 110, 169, 177 
Panntetier, G., 232, 258 
Parjakoff, 188 
Parker, H., 254 
Payne, C. H., 254 
Peake, H. J. E., 93, 112, 252 
Pearl, R., 251 
Pearson, 7, 24, 250 
Peking, 159, 235 
Perak, 235 
Perm, 201 
Persepolis, 111 
Persia, 37, 107, 253 
Persian Gulf, 104 
Philippine Islands, 45, 66, 145, 224, 
227, 259 

ethnology of, 241 
Pheenicia, ancient remains in, 75 
Pigmentation, 25 ff., 251 
Pithecanthropus, 71, 74 
Platycnemia, 206, 208 
Platymeria, 208 
Pliocene, 76 
Poch, R., 253 
Polynesia, 34 
Porotov, M. T., 181, 182, 256 
Potanin, G. N., 180 
Probable errors, 10 
Pumpelly, R., 72, 252 
Punjab, 125, 126 
Pure Races, 15 


Quatrefages, J. L. de, 250, 259 
Quetelet, A. de, 6, 250 


Race, criteria of, 1 ff., 14 ff. 
fixity of, 16 

Races of Asia, 32 ff. 

Racial likeness, coefficient of, 11 
geography, 32 

Rainfall, Western Asia, 85, 86 

Rajputana, 125 

Ramaprasad-Chanda, 129 

Red River, 221 

Reed, W. A., 259 

Reicher, M., 20, 57, 182, 255 

Retzius, A., 97, 250 

Rhinoceros tichorhinus, 73 

Richards, F. J., 136, 139, 254 

Richards, L., 251 


270 


Richthoven, Freiherr von, 251 

Rig Veda, 137 

Ripley, W. Z., 6, 22, 23, 27, 28, 32, 45, 
49, 53, 55, 57, 63, 96, 104, 112, 
156, 250 

Risley, Sir H. H., 45, 129, 140 ff., 
254 

classification of Indian races, 124 ff, 

Rivers of Asia, 37 ff. 

Rivers, W. H. R., 254 

Roberts, S. G., 253 

Robertson, G. 8., 254 

Robinson, H. C., 258 

Rockhill, W. W., 171, 255 

Rose, A., 255 

Roudenko, S., 201, 202, 256 

Roux, P., 258 

Roxby, P. M., 149 

Russia, 85 

Ryukyu Islands, 37, 257 


Saghalien, 37, 43, 198, 205, 209 

Salaman, R. N., 253 

Samarqand, 169, 253 

Santal Parganas, 118 

San-tao Ho, 73 

Sarasin, P. and F., 254, 259 

Sardinia, 92 

Sasva, River, 201 

Satsuma, 215, 216 

Savanna regions, 41 

Savenkoy, 252 

Scandinavia, 50, 77 

Scheube, B., 257 

Schmidt, W., 143, 146, 254, 259 

Schrenk, L. V., 195, 257 

Scott, Sir G., 258 

Seeland, Dr., 257 

Selanga, River, 181, 256 | 

Selection, natural, 24 

Seligman, C. G., 105, 106, 253, 255 

Semirechie, 173 

Senart, E., 253 

Sergi, G., 4, 88, 250 

Shan States, 220, 221, 228 

Shansi, 150, 157 

Shantung, 150, 157, 163 

Shensi, 150 

Shikoku, 205 

Shimada, K., 257 

Shirokogoroff, 8. M., 162 ff., 189, 190, 

199, 203, 255 

Shi-tsui-tze, 73 

Shrendrikovski, J. J., 256 

Siam, 221, 258 

Sian, 152 

Siangyan, 152 

Siberia, 36, 37, 39, 40, 179, 182, 187, 

192 ff., 251, 256, 257 

ancient man in, 72, 74 
archeology of, 194 
climate, 193 


GENERAL INDEX 


Siberia, ethnology, 195 ff. 

Sikkim, 142, 171 

Sinkiang, 148, 167 ff., 173, 255 

Sino-Japanese area, 41 

Siwalik, 76 

Sjara Osso Gol, 73 

Skeat, W. W., 258, 259 

Skin-colour, 25, 26, 49, 60, 182 

Smith, G. Elliot, 33, 44, 52 ff., 72, 88, 

102, 251 

Smith, V. A., 253 

Sollas, W. J., 82, 252 

Spiller, G., 251 

Standard deviation, 8, 130 

Stature, 22, 49, 63, 158 

Stavropol, 180 

Stein, Sir A., 173, 255 

Steppes, 40, 86, 138 

Stratz, C. H., 259 

Suchow, 169 

Suez Canal, 34 

Sulaiman Mountains, 109 

Sullivan, L. R., 251, 259 

Sumatra, 65, 68, 224, 225, 237, 242, 

259 

Sumeria, 50 

Sunda Islands, 224 

Sung dynasty, 160 

Susiana, 111 

Swettenham, Sir F., 258, 259 

Sygva, River, 201 

Syr Daria, 114 

Syria, 56, 85 ff., 99, 100, 251, 252 
palzoliths in, 72 

Szechuan, 152, 155, 156 


Tabriz, 86 

Tachienlu, 168 

Tagara masks, 194, 195 

Taiwan, see Formosa 

Taklamakan desert, 41, 178 

Talko-Hryncewicz, J. D., 194, 256 

Tapti, River, 39 

Tarbagatai Mountains, 178, 180 

Tarim basin, 35, 36, 149, 153, 169, 173 

Tasmania, 34 

Teheran, 89 

Teilhard, P., 73, 252 

Temperate forests, 40 

Temple, Sir R. C. D., 258 

Temporal muscles, 59 

Tenasserim, 220, 221 

Terai, 116 

Testut, L., 82, 252 

Thebaid, 50 

Thessaly, 94 

Thomson, A., 17 ff., 21, 69, 83, 250, 
255 

Thurston, E., 129, 254 

Tibet, 35, 40, 148, 149, 161, 167 ff., 
169, 255 

Tibeto- Yunnan plateau, 220 


GENERAL INDEX 


Tien-Shan, 149, 169, 178 

Tientsin, 159 

Tigris, 38 

Tildesley, M. A., 230, 258 

Tobolsk, 193, 196, 201 

Tod, J., 254 

Toldt, E., 257 

Tomsk, 177, 196, 201 

Tonkin, 258 

Topinard, P., 4, 14, 18, 250 

Torri, R., 187, 256 

Tourensk, 201 

Trade routes, 169, 178 

Transbaikalia, 177, 193 

Troll, J., 253 

Tropical forests, 42 

Troy, siege of, 93 

Tsaidam, 168 

Tsanpo, 167 

Tsing Ling Mountains, 150, 152 

Tsukumo, 207 

Tsushima, 215 

Tuck, H. N., 258 

Tuen-heng-sien, 169 

Tumen, River, 189 

Tundra, 40 

Tungting Lake, 155 

Tunguska, 196, 198 

Turan, plain of, 39, 41 

Turania, 192 

Turfan, 169, 173 

Turkestan, 72, 114, 156, 169, 183, 

252, 253, 256 

Turkestan, Chinese, see Sinkiang 

Turkey, 93 

Turkish Empire, 85 

Turkoman desert, 41 
republic, 85, 107 
steppes, 112 

Turner, Sir W., 161, 170, 254, 255, 

258, 259 
Turukhansk, 196 


Udaipur, 125 

Ujfalvy, C. E., 112, 113, 188, 253, 256 
Uliassetai, 178 

United Provinces, 133 

Ur, 101 

Ural Mountains, 192, 197 

Urga, 178 

Urumchi, 169 

Uzbeg Republic, 85, 107 


Vegetation, Western Asia, 86 


271 


Verneau, R., 67, 229, 231, 233, 258 
Vincent, G., 253 

Virchow, R., 255, 256 

Visher, 8. S., 251 

Vitamins, 23 

Volga, River, 179, 180 

Volkov, Th., 252 

Volz, W., 237, 259 


Wall, Great, of China, 35, 148, 150 
Wei, River, 152 

Weissenberg, J., 96, 97, 252, 253 
Weldon, C., 7 

Wells, J., 252 

Western Ghats, 39, 118 

White, Sir H. T., 228, 258 
Winstedt, R. O., 235, 258 
Woods, H. A., 157 

Woolley, C. L., 101 

Wuting, 157 


Xanthoderms, 45 


Yablonoi Mountains, 36, 40, 177 
Yadrintseff, N. M., 174 
Yajur Veda, 137 
Yakutsk, 193 
Yalu River, 189 
Yamato, 215 
Yana River, 193, 196 
Yangtze Kiang, 36, 38, 117, 149, 150 
Yarkand, 169 
Yellow River, see Hwang Ho 
Yellow Sea, 187 
Yemen, 86, 105 
Yenesei River, 39, 44, 192, 196, 201, 
256 
valley, palzoliths in, 72 
Yeneseisk, 177, 193 
Yezo, see Hokkaido © 
Yinach’ang, 157 
Yuan River, 155 
Yu-feng-chiao, 73 
Yuldur River, 169 
Yule, G. Udney, 250 
Yunnan, 149, 152, 155 ff., 231, 255 


Zaborovski, S., 232, 258 
Zammit, T., 34 

Zayan Mountains, 177 
Zichy, Count de, 253 
Zumoffen, 75, 252 
Zwaan, K. de, 44, 251 





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